Subcellular localization and transcriptional repressor activity of HBx on p21WAF1/Cip1 promoter is regulated by ERK-mediated phosphorylation

Hepatitis B Viral Protein HBx and the Molecular Mechanisms Modulating the Hallmarks of Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Comprehensive Review

With 296 million cases estimated worldwide, chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is the most common risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). HBV-encoded oncogene X protein (HBx), a key multifunctional regulatory protein, drives viral replication and interferes with several cellular signalling pathways that drive virus-associated hepatocarcinogenesis. This review article provides a comprehensive overview of the role of HBx in modulating the various hallmarks of HCC by supporting tumour initiation, progression, invasion and metastasis. Understanding HBx-mediated dimensions of complexity in driving liver malignancies could provide the key to unlocking novel and repurposed combinatorial therapies to combat HCC.

Phosphorylation of Phylogenetically Conserved Amino Acid Residues Confines HBx within Different Cell Compartments of Human Hepatocarcinoma Cells

Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a circular, and partially double-stranded DNA virus. Upon infection, the viral genome is translocated into the cell nucleus, generating the covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) intermediate, and forming a mini chromosome. HBV HBx is a small protein displaying multiple roles in HBV-infected cells, and in different subcellular locations. In the nucleus, the HBx protein is required to initiate and maintain viral transcription from the viral mini chromosome. In contrast, HBx also functions in the cytoplasm, where it is able to alter multiple cellular functions such as mitochondria metabolism, apoptosis and signal transduction pathways. It has been reported that in cultured cells, at low expression levels, the HBx protein is localized in the nucleus, whereas at high expression levels, it accumulates in the cytoplasm. This dynamic subcellular distribution of HBx might be essential to exert its multiple roles during viral infection. However, the mechanism that regulates different subcellular localizations of the HBx protein is unknown. We have previously taken a bioinformatics approach to investigate whether HBx might be regulated via post-translational modification, and we have proposed that the multiple nucleocytoplasmic functions of HBx might be regulated by an evolutionarily conserved mechanism via phosphorylation. In the current study, phylogenetically conserved amino acids of HBx with a high potential of phosphorylation were targeted for site-directed mutagenesis. Two conserved serine (Ser25 and Ser41), and one conserved threonine (Thr81) amino acids were replaced by either alanine or aspartic acid residues to simulate an unphosphorylated or phosphorylated state, respectively. Human hepatoma cells were transfected with increasing amounts of the HBx DNA constructs, and the cells were analyzed by fluorescence microscopy. Together, our results show that the nucleocytoplasmic distribution of the HBx protein could be regulated by phosphorylation since some of the modified proteins were mainly confined to distinct subcellular compartments. Remarkably, both HBx Ser41A, and HBx Thr81D proteins were predominantly localized within the nuclear compartment throughout the different expression levels of HBx mutants.

Phosphorylation events during viral infections provide potential therapeutic targets

For many medically relevant viruses, there is now considerable evidence that both viral and cellular kinases play important roles in viral infection. Ultimately, these kinases, and the cellular signaling pathways that they exploit, may serve as therapeutic targets for treating patients. Currently, small molecule inhibitors of kinases are under investigation as therapy for herpes viral infections. Additionally, a number of cellular or host-directed tyrosine kinase inhibitors that have been previously FDA approved for cancer treatment are under study in animal models and clinical trials, as they have shown promise for the treatment of various viral infections as well. This review will highlight the wide range of viral proteins phosphorylated by viral and cellular kinases, and the potential for variability of kinase recognition sites within viral substrates to impact phosphorylation and kinase prediction. Research studying kinase-targeting prophylactic and therapeutic treatments for a number of viral infections will also be discussed.

Trichostatin A sensitizes HBx-expressing liver cancer cells to etoposide treatment

Agents commonly used in cancer chemotherapy rely on the induction of cell death via apoptosis, mitotic catastrophe, premature senescence and autophagy. Chemoresistance is the major factor limiting long-term treatment success in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Recent studies have revealed that the hepatitis B virus X protein (HBx) exerts anti-apoptotic effects, resulting in an increased drug resistance in HCC cells. In this study, we showed that etoposide treatment activated caspase-8 and caspase-3, leading to cleavages of p53, Bid and PARP, which subsequently induced apoptosis. Furthermore, p53 and Bid were accumulated in cytoplasm following etoposide treatment. However, HBx significantly attenuated etoposide-induced cell death. In HBx-expressing cells, despite the translocation of p53 and Bid to cytoplasm, the activation of caspases was inhibited. Furthermore, the phosphorylation of extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) was markedly increased in HBx-expressing cells. Moreover, the pretreatment with trichostatin A (TSA, a histone deacetylase inhibitor) or TSA in combination with etoposide significantly sensitized HCC cells to apoptosis by inhibiting ERK phosphorylation, reactivating caspases and PARP, and inducing translocation of p53 and Bid to cytoplasm. Collectively, HBx reduces the sensitivity of HCC cells to chemotherapy. TSA in combination with etoposide can significantly overcome the increased resistance of HBx-expressing HCC cells to chemotherapy.

The role of hepatitis B virus X protein is related to its differential intracellular localization

Chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection has been strongly associated with hepatocellular carcinoma. HBV encodes an oncogenic hepatitis B virus X protein (HBx), which is a multifunctional regulator that modulates signal transduction, transcription, cell cycle progress, protein degradation, apoptosis, and genetic stability through direct and indirect interaction with host factors. The subcellular localization of HBx is primarily cytoplasmic, with a small fraction in the nucleus. In addition, high levels of HBx expression lead to an abnormal mitochondrial distribution. The dynamic distribution of HBx could be important to the multiple functions of HBx at different stages of the HBV life cycle. This short review presents an overview of the differential roles of HBx as a function of its intracellular localization.

Identification of beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase I as a target gene of HBx-induced cell cycle progression of hepatoma cell

BACKGROUND/AIMS

The hepatitis B virus-encoded HBx protein contributes to hepatocarcinogenesis with largely unknown mechanisms. It is widely known that N-linked oligosaccharides on glycoproteins are structurally altered during malignant transformation and these alterations are often associated with malignant transformation of cells. beta-1,4-galactosyltransferase I (GalT I) contributes to the biosynthesis of Galbeta-->4GlcNAc structure in the outer chain moieties of N-glycans.

METHODS

The difference of GalT I expression between normal liver and hepatoma tissues were investigated; the effect of HBx on GalT I expression was investigated; the role of GalT I in hepatoma cell growth and HBx-induced hepatoma cell growth were investigated.

RESULTS

GalT I was highly expressed in hepatocellular carcinoma and transcriptionally up-regulated by HBx, and functioned as a positive growth regulator in hepatoma cells. Furthermore, decreasing the expression of GalT I in hepatoma cells reduced the ability of tumor formation in vivo and inhibited HBx-induced cell cycle progression.

CONCLUSIONS

HBx-induced GalT I expression might contribute to HBx-mediated HCC development and progression.

Analysis of hepatitis B virus X gene phylogeny, genetic variability and its impact on pathogenesis: implications in Eastern Indian HBV carriers

HBx genetic variability was explored in the Eastern Indian population with low HCC incidence. DNase I sensitive HBV DNA was detected in 53% samples, which differed significantly between clinical groups (P<0.001). HBV genotypes A (Aa/A1), C (Cs/C1) and D (D1, D2, D3, D5) were detected in 37.5%, 18.7% and 43.7% samples respectively. Population specific signature HBx residues A(36), V(88), S(101) in Aa/A1 and residues P(41), Q(110) in D5 were detected. Mutations T(127), M(130) and I(131) were detected in 66.7%, 91% and 75% of genotype A, C and D5 samples respectively. Very low occurrence of HCC associated mutations (V(5)M/L, P(38)S, and H(94)Y) and absence of C-terminal deletions were observed. Our study shows that HBV genotype associated clinically important HBx variations may evolve and act distinctly in different geo-ethnic populations. Further studies on HBx functions from the perspective of genetic variability are essential for the better understanding of the clinical significance of HBV.

HBV X protein: elucidating a role in oncogenesis

Chronic HBV infection is associated with the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). HBV contributes to tumorigenesis by encoding hepatitis B x antigen (HBxAg), which is a trans-regulatory protein that appears to contribute to HCC by altering patterns of host gene expression. In this review, recent data is presented that outlines some of the putative mechanisms whereby HBxAg contributes to HCC. With the development of animal models of HBxAg-mediated HCC, the relevance and temporal order of putative steps in this process can now be dissected to elucidate what is rate limiting and when. This will have a profound impact on the design of novel and specific therapeutics for HCC.

Pin1 interacts with a specific serine-proline motif of hepatitis B virus X-protein to enhance hepatocarcinogenesis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The peptidyl prolyl isomerase Pin1 frequently is overexpressed in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Hepatitis B virus (HBV) is the most common etiologic agent in HCC, and its encoded X-protein (HBx) is oncogenic and possesses a serine-proline motif that may bind Pin1. The role of Pin1 in hepatocarcinogenesis, particularly in HBV-related HCC, was investigated.

METHODS

Immunohistochemical staining was performed to evaluate the prevalence of Pin1 overexpression in HCCs of different etiologies. Glutathione S-transferase pull-down and co-immunoprecipitation experiments were used to validate the physical interaction between Pin1 and HBx. Reporter assay, cell proliferation assay, and xenotransplantation experiments were used to show the functional consequence and importance of Pin1-HBx interaction in hepatocarcinogenesis.

RESULTS

We showed preferential Pin1 overexpression in HBV-related tumors and confirmed the interaction between Pin1 and HBx at the specific serine-proline motif. Pin1 overexpression increased the protein stability of HBx. Furthermore, HBx-mediated transactivation was enhanced by co-expression of Pin1. HepG2 expressing Pin1 and HBx showed a synergistic increase in cellular proliferation, as compared with cells expressing Pin1 or HBx alone. Furthermore, concomitant expression of Pin1 and HBx in the nontumorigenic human hepatocyte cell line MIHA led to a synergistic increase in tumor growth. Finally, in Hep3B cells with suppressed Pin1 expression, HBx-enhanced tumor growth in nude mice was abrogated.

CONCLUSIONS

Pin1 binds HBx to enhance hepatocarcinogenesis in HBV-infected hepatocytes. The discovery of an interaction between Pin1 and HBx will further our understanding of the molecular pathogenic mechanism of HBV-related HCC in human beings.

The transcriptional transactivation function of HBx protein is important for its augmentation role in hepatitis B virus replication

The role and functional domain of hepatitis B virus (HBV) X protein (HBx) in regulating HBV transcription and replication were investigated with a transient transfection system in the human hepatoma cell line HepG2 using wild-type or HBx-minus HBV genome constructs and a series of deletion or mutation HBx expression plasmids. We show here that HBx has augmentation effects on HBV transcription and replication as a HBV mutant genome with defective X gene led to decreased levels of 3.5-kb HBV RNA and HBV replication intermediates and that these decreases can be restored by either transient ectopic expression of HBx or a stable HBx expression cell line. The C-terminal two-thirds (amino acids [aa] 51 to 154), which contain the transactivation domain, is required for this function of HBx; the N-terminal one-third (aa 1 to 50) is not required. Using the alanine scanning mutagenesis strategy, we demonstrated that the regions between aa 52 to 65 and 88 to 154 are important for the augmentation function of HBx in HBV replication. By the luciferase reporter gene analysis, we found that the transactivation and coactivation activities of HBx coincide well with its augmentation function in HBV transcription and replication. These results suggest that HBx has an important role in stimulating HBV transcription and replication and that the transcriptional transactivation function of HBx may be critical for its augmentation effect on HBV replication.

Activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases and AP-1 by polysaccharide isolated from the radix of Platycodon grandiflorum in RAW 264.7 cells

The root of Platycodon grandiflorum has been widely used for the treatment of various diseases in oriental medicine. Our previous study showed that the PG, a polysaccharide isolated from P. grandiflorum, activates macrophages via Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4). However, the associated biological mechanisms are not fully understood. To elucidate the molecular mechanism responsible for the macrophage activation, we investigated the effect of PG on the activity of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and activator protein-1 (AP-1) in RAW 264.7 cells, a murine macrophage cell line. Treatment of RAW 264.7 cells with PG produced a marked induction of AP-1 DNA binding activity. Moreover, all three MAPKs were activated by PG, and PG-induced activation of MAPKs was abrogated by the treatment of PD98059, curcumin, and SB203580, specific inhibitors of MEK-1/2, stress-activated protein kinases/jun N-terminal kinase (SAPK/JNK), and p38 MAP kianse, respectively. The induction of AP-1 DNA binding activity by PG was also inhibited by these MAPK inhibitors. Moreover, supershift analysis identified that JunB and Fra-1 are major components involved in the PG-mediated induction of AP-1 DNA binding. Additionally, curcumin and SB203580 suppressed PG-induced production of nitric oxide (NO) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), whereas PD98059 showed an inhibitory effect only on the TNF-alpha production. Taken together, these results suggest that macrophage activation by PG is mediated, at least in part, by MAPKs and AP-1.