Design of solid state bioreactor for industrial applications: An overview to conventional bioreactors

Versatile Applications of Brewer's Spent Grain: Solid-State Fermentation and Nutritional Added Value

Brewer's spent grain (BSG) is a major by-product in the beer-brewing process which contributes to 85% of the entire generated by-product in the brewing process. BSG is rich in proteins, and most of the malt proteins (74-78%) remain insoluble in BSG after the mashing process. Solid-state fermentation (SSF) is a promising bioprocess that enables microorganisms to survive in environments with minimal water and has shown to enhance the nutritional composition of BSG. In this review, the potential application of protein, amino acids (proline, threonine, and serine), phenolic contents, and soluble sugars (glucose, fructose, xylose, arabinose, and cellobiose) extracted from BSG by various microorganisms using SSF is explored. Incorporation of BSG into animal feed, human diets, and as a substrate for microorganisms are the prospects that could be implemented in the industrial scale. This review also discussed various advances to improve the fermentation yield such as symbiotic fermentation, the addition of nitrogen supplements, and an optimal mixture of the agro-industrial waste substrate. Future perspectives on SSF are also addressed to provide important ideas for immediate and future studies. However, challenges include optimizing SSF conditions and design of bioreactors, and operational costs must be addressed in the future to overcome current obstacles. Overall, this mini review highlights the potential benefits of BSG utilization and SSF in a sustainable way.

Sustainable production of bioemulsifiers, a critical overview from microorganisms to promising applications

Microbial bioemulsifiers are molecules of amphiphilic nature and high molecular weight that are efficient in emulsifying two immiscible phases such as water and oil. These molecules are less effective in reducing surface tension and are synthesized by bacteria, yeast and filamentous fungi. Unlike synthetic emulsifiers, microbial bioemulsifiers have unique advantages such as biocompatibility, non-toxicity, biodegradability, efficiency at low concentrations and high selectivity under different conditions of pH, temperature and salinity. The adoption of microbial bioemulsifiers as alternatives to their synthetic counterparts has been growing in ongoing research. This article analyzes the production of microbial-based emulsifiers, the raw materials and fermentation processes used, as well as the scale-up and commercial applications of some of these biomolecules. The current trend of incorporating natural compounds into industrial formulations indicates that the search for new bioemulsifiers will continue to increase, with emphasis on performance improvement and economically viable processes.

Valorization of agro-industrial wastes into animal feed through microbial fermentation: A review of the global and Ghanaian case

Agricultural and industrial activities around the world lead to the production of large quantities of agro-industrial wastes (e.g., peels of cassava, pineapple, plantain, banana, and yam, as well as rice husks, rice bran , corn husks, corn cobs, palm kernel cake, soybean meal, wheat bran, etc.). These agro-industrial wastes are discarded indiscriminately, thereby polluting the environment and becoming hazardous to human and animal health. Solid-state fermentation (SSF), a microbial fermentation process, is a viable, efficient approach that transforms discarded agro-industrial wastes into a plethora of useful value-added bioproducts. There is growing interest in the application of SSF in valorizing agro-industrial wastes for the production of fermented, protein-rich animal feed within the livestock industry. SSF reduces anti-nutritional factors whose presence hinders the digestibility and bioavailability of nutrients in agro-industrial wastes. Thus, the application of SSF improves the nutrient contents and quality of valorized agro-industrial wastes as animal feed. Fermented animal feed production may be safer, cheaper and enhance the overall growth performance and health of animals. SSF, therefore, as a strategic approach in a circular bioeconomy, presents economic and practical advantages that guarantee efficient recycling and valorization of agro-industrial wastes that ameliorate environmental pollution. This paper reviews the status of global and local Ghanaian biotransformation and valorization of agro-industrial wastes through SSF for the production of nutrient-rich animal feed.

Exploring agricultural waste biomass for energy, food and feed production and pollution mitigation: A review

Globally agricultural production system generates a huge amount of solid waste. Improper agri-waste management causes environmental pollution which resulted in economic losses and human health-related problems. Hence, there is an urgent need to design and develop eco-friendly, cost-effective, and socially acceptable agri-waste management technologies. Agri-waste has high energy conversion efficiency as compared to fossil fuel-based energy generation materials. Agri-waste can potentially be exploited for the production of second-generation biofuels. However, composted agri-waste can be an alternative to energy-intensive chemical fertilizers in organic production systems. Furthermore, value-added agri-waste can be a potential feedstock for livestock and industrial products. But comprehensive information concerning agri-waste management is lacking in the literature. Therefore, the present study reviewed the latest advancements in efficient agri-waste management technologies. This latest review will help the researchers and policy planners to formulate environmentally robust residue management practices for achieving a green economy in the agricultural production sector.

Transformation of mixtures of olive mill stone waste and oat bran or Lathyrus clymenum pericarps into high added value products using solid state fermentation

The main objective of this study concerns the bioconversion of agro-industrial wastes into high added value products, such as proteinaceous animal feed, using Solid State Fermentation process (SSF). For this purpose, the Olive Mill Stone Waste (OMSW) which is known to contain low amounts of proteins and a high concentration of anti-nutritional substances was used as substrate. Subsequently, OMSW was fermented with Oat Bran (OB) or Lathyrus clymenum pericarp (LP) in proportions varying from 10 %w/w to 30 %w/w, applying SSF process initiated by Pleurotus ostreatus utilizing latter's secreted enzymes for their degradation. The respective results indicated that the addition of 30 %w/w of OB, resulted in a 39% increase of the protein content at the end of fermentation (Day 21). In addition, we observed a 5-fold increase of 1,3-1,6 β-glucan content and a simultaneous decrease of unwanted lignin of 24%. The addition of 20 %w/w of LP afforded, at the end of fermentation (Day 21), an increased protein content of 57%, a 3-fold increase in 1,3-1,6 β-glucans and a decrease in lignin concentration of 13%. These findings demonstrate the potential of the LP utilization by using SSF process, for the production of high nutritional value dietary supplements for animal feed. This endeavor constitutes the first literature report for the utilization of the agro-industrial waste LP. The developed methodology herein is considered as crucial for the circular economy since it refers to the reuse of agro-industrial wastes and the production of a high added-value product.

Design of nutrient gas-phase bioreactors: a critical comprehensive review

To reach an efficient and economical gas-phase bioreactor is still one of the most critical challenges in biotechnology engineering. The numerous advantages of gas-phase bioreactors (GPBs) as well as disadvantages of these bioreactors should be exactly recognized, and efforts should be made to eliminate these defects. The first step in upgrading these bioreactors is to identify their types and the results of previous research. In the present work, a summary of the studies carried out in the field of cultivation in these bioreactors, their classification, their components, their principles and relations governing elements, modeling them, and some of their inherent engineering aspects are presented. Literature review showed that inoculation of shoots, roots, adventurous roots, callus, nodal explants, anther, nodal segment, somatic embryo, hairy roots, and fungus is reported in 15, 2, 2, 2, 3, 2, 1, 1, 37, and 5 cases, respectively.

Production of lactones for flavoring and pharmacological purposes from unsaturated lipids: an industrial perspective

The enantiomeric pure and natural (+)-Lactones (C ≤ 14) with aromas obtained from fruits and milk are considered flavoring compounds. The flavoring value is related to the lactones' ring size and chain length, which blend in varying concentrations to produce different stone-fruit flavors. The nature-identical and enantiomeric pure (+)-lactones are only produced through whole-cell biotransformation of yeast. The industrially important γ-decalactone and δ-decalactone are produced by a four-step aerobic-oxidation of ricinoleic acid (RA) following the lactonization mechanism. Recently, metabolic engineering strategies have opened up new possibilities for increasing productivity. Another strategy for increasing yield is to immobilize the RA and remove lactones from the broth regularly. Besides flavor impact, γ-, δ-, ε-, ω-lactones of the carbon chain (C8-C12), the macro-lactones and their derivatives are vital in pharmaceuticals and healthcare. These analogues are isolated from natural sources or commercially produced via biotransformation and chemical synthesis processes for medicinal use or as active pharmaceutical ingredients. The various approaches to biotransformation have been discussed in this review to generate more prospects from a commercial point of view. Finally, this work will be regarded as a magical brick capable of containing both traditional and genetic engineering technology while contributing to a wide range of commercial applications.

Application of solid-state fermentation by microbial biotechnology for bioprocessing of agro-industrial wastes from 1970 to 2020: A review and bibliometric analysis

This paper reviews the pertinent literature from 1970 to 2020 and presents a bibliometric analysis of research trends in the application of solid-state fermentation in the bioprocessing of agro-industrial wastes. A total 5630 publications of studies on solid-state fermentation that comprised of 5208 articles (92.50%), 340 book chapters (6.04%), 39 preprints (0.69%), 32 proceedings (0.56%), 8 edited books (0.14%) and 3 monographs (0.05%) were retrieved from Dimensions database. A review of the literature indicated that (i) fermentation of solid substrates is variously defined in the literature over the past 50 years, where "solid-state fermentation" is the most dominant research term used, and (ii) key products derived from the valorization of agro-industrial wastes through solid-state fermentation include, among others, enzymes, antioxidants, animal feed, biofuel, organic acids, biosurfactants, etc. Bibliometric analyses with VOSviewer revealed an astronomic increase in publications between 2000 and 2020, and further elucidated the most frequently explored core research topics, the most highly cited publications and authors, and countries/regions with the highest number of citations. The most cited publication between 2010 and 2020 had 382 citations compared to 725 citations for the most cited publication from 1970 to 2020. Ashok Pandey from India was the most published and cited author with 123 publications and 8,613 citations respectively; whereas Bioresource Technology was the most published and cited journal with 233 publications and 12,394 citations. Countries with the most publications and citations are Brazil, France, India, and Mexico. These findings suggest that research in the application of solid-state fermentation for bioprocessing of agro-industrial wastes has gained prominence over the past 50 years. Future perspectives and implications are discussed.

Rotating Magnetic Field-Assisted Reactor Enhances Mechanisms of Phage Adsorption on Bacterial Cell Surface

Growing interest in bacteriophage research and use, especially as an alternative treatment option for multidrug-resistant bacterial infection, requires rapid development of production methods and strengthening of bacteriophage activities. Bacteriophage adsorption to host cells initiates the process of infection. The rotating magnetic field (RMF) is a promising biotechnological method for process intensification, especially for the intensification of micromixing and mass transfer. This study evaluates the use of RMF to enhance the infection process by influencing bacteriophage adsorption rate. The RMF exposition decreased the t₅₀ and t₇₅ of bacteriophages T4 on Escherichia coli cells and vb_SauM_A phages on Staphylococcus aureus cells. The T4 phage adsorption rate increased from 3.13 × 10⁻⁹ mL × min⁻¹ to 1.64 × 10⁻⁸ mL × min⁻¹. The adsorption rate of vb_SauM_A phages exposed to RMF increased from 4.94 × 10⁻⁹ mL × min⁻¹ to 7.34 × 10⁻⁹ mL × min⁻¹. Additionally, the phage T4 zeta potential changed under RMF from −11.1 ± 0.49 mV to −7.66 ± 0.29 for unexposed and RMF-exposed bacteriophages, respectively.

Advances in solid-state fermentation for bioconversion of agricultural wastes to value-added products: Opportunities and challenges

The increase in solid waste has become a common problem and causes environmental pollution worldwide. A green approach to valorise solid waste for sustainable development is required. Agricultural residues are considered suitable for conversion into profitable products through solid-state fermentation (SSF). Agricultural wastes have high organic content that is used as potential substrates to produce value-added products through SSF. The importance of process variables used in solid-phase fermentation is described. The applications of SSF developed products in the food industry as flavouring agents, acidifiers, preservatives and flavour enhancers. SSF produces secondary metabolites and essential enzymes. Wastes from agricultural residues are used as bioremediation agents, biofuels and biocontrol agents through microbial processing. In this review paper, the value addition of agricultural wastes by SSF through green processing is discussed with the current knowledge on the scenarios, sustainability opportunities and future directions of a circular economy for solid waste utilisation.

Impact of solid-state fermentation on factors and mechanisms influencing the bioactive compounds of grains and processing by-products

Cereal and legume grains and their processing by-products are rich sources of bioactives such as phenolics with considerable health potential, but these bioactives suffer from low bioaccessibility and bioavailability, resulting in limited use. Several studies have demonstrated that solid-state fermentation (SSF) with food-grade microorganisms is effective in releasing bound phenolic compounds in cereal and legume products. In this review, we discuss the effect of SSF on cereal and legume grains and their by-products by examining the role of specific microorganisms, their hydrolytic enzymes, fermentability of agri-food substrates, and the potential health benefits of SSF-enhanced bioactive compounds. SSF with fungi (Aspergillus spp. and Rhizopus spp.), bacteria (Bacillus subtilis and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) spp.) and yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) significantly increased the bioactive phenolics and antioxidant capacities in cereal and legume grains and by-products, mainly through carbohydrate-cleaving enzymes. Increased bioactive phenolic and peptide contents of SSF-bioprocessed cereal and legume grains have been implicated for improved antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-carcinogenic, anti-diabetic, and angiotensin-converting-enzyme (ACE) inhibitory effects in fermented agri-food products, but these remain as preliminary results. Future research should focus on the microbial mechanisms, suitability of substrates, and the physiological health benefits of SSF-treated grains and by-products.

Bioreactor control systems in the biopharmaceutical industry: a critical perspective

Industrial-scale bioprocessing underpins much of the production of pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, food, and beverage processing industries of the modern world. The profitability of these processes increasingly leverages the economies of scale and scope that are critically dependent on the product yields, titers, and productivity. Most of the processes are controlled using classical control approaches and represent over 90% of the industrial controls used in bioprocessing industries. However, with the advances in the production processes, especially in the biopharmaceutical and nutraceutical industries, monitoring and control of bioprocesses such as fermentations with GMO organisms, and downstream processing has become increasingly complex and the inadequacies of the classical and some of the modern control systems techniques is becoming apparent. Therefore, with increasing research complexity, nonlinearity, and digitization in process, there has been a critical need for advanced process control that is more effective, and easier process intensification and product yield (both by quality and quantity) can be achieved. In this review, industrial aspects of a process and automation along with various commercial control strategies have been extensively discussed to give an insight into the future prospects of industrial development and possible new strategies for process control and automation with a special focus on the biopharmaceutical industry.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s43393-021-00048-6.

Potential Role of Sequential Solid-State and Submerged-Liquid Fermentations in a Circular Bioeconomy

An efficient processing of organic solid residues will be pivotal in the development of the circular bioeconomy. Due to their composition, such residues comprise a great biochemical conversion potential through fermentations. Generally, the carbohydrates and proteins present in the organic wastes cannot be directly metabolized by microorganisms. Thus, before fermentation, enzymes are used in a hydrolysis step to release digestible sugars and nitrogen. Although enzymes can be efficiently produced from organic solid residues in solid-state fermentations (SsF), challenges in the development and scale-up of SsF technologies, especially bioreactors, have hindered a wider application of such systems. Therefore, most of the commercial enzymes are produced in submerged-liquid fermentations (SmF) from expensive simple sugars. Instead of independently evaluating SsF and SmF, the review covers the option of combining them in a sequential process in which, enzymes are firstly produced in SsF and then used for hydrolysis, yielding a suitable medium for SmF. The article reviews experimental work that has demonstrated the feasibility of the process and underlines the benefits that such combination has. Finally, a discussion is included which highlights that, unlike typically perceived, SsF should not be considered a counterpart of SmF but, in contrast, the main advantages of each type of fermentation are accentuated in a synergistic sequential SsF-SmF.

A Comprehensive Review on Valorization of Agro-Food Industrial Residues by Solid-State Fermentation

Agro-food industrial residues (AFIRs) are generated in large quantities all over the world. The vast majority of these wastes are lignocellulosic wastes that are a source of value-added products. Technologies such as solid-state fermentation (SSF) for bioconversion of lignocellulosic waste, based on the production of a wide range of bioproducts, offer both economic and environmental benefits. The versatility of application and interest in applying the principles of the circular bioeconomy make SSF one of the valorization strategies for AFIRs that can have a significant impact on the environment of the wider community. Important criteria for SSF are the selection of the appropriate and compatible substrate and microorganism, as well as the selection of the optimal process parameters for the growth of the microorganism and the production of the desired metabolites. This review provides an overview of the management of AFIRs by SSF: the current application, classification, and chemical composition of AFIRs; the catalytic function and potential application of enzymes produced by various microorganisms during SSF cultivation on AFIRs; the production of phenolic compounds by SSF; and a brief insight into the role of SSF treatment of AFIRs for feed improvement and biofuel production.

Solid-state culture of Azospirillum brasilense: a reliable technology for biofertilizer production from laboratory to pilot scale

A biofertilizer of Azospirillum brasilense was produced in solid-state culture (SSC) from laboratory to pilot scale. Similar operation conditions (continuous aeration and mild intermittent mixing) and two dimensionless numbers with similar L/D ratio and a similar working volume were applied to reach a scale-up factor of 75. An innovative bioreactor with rotating helical ribbons (15 kg wet matter) was used at pilot scale. A mathematical model was proposed and validated to evaluate the respirometry trends at laboratory and pilot scale exhibiting similar behavior. The cell viability was (1.3 ± 0.4) × 10⁹ and (1.3 ± 0.3) × 10⁹ colony-forming units per gram of initial dry mass at laboratory and pilot scale, at 36 and 43 h, respectively. A. brasilense maintains its viability twelve months of storage at 4 and 30 °C. This is the first report of A. brasilense being cultivated in SSC under controlled conditions. SSC processes involving unicellular microorganisms with tolerance to agitation are a promising technology to produce biofertilizers.

Bacterial Whole Cells Synthesis of Whisky Lactones in a Solid-State Fermentation Bioreactor Prototype

Agro-industrial side streams such as oilseed cakes were used as a medium in solid-state fermentation (SSF) for microbial oxidation of anti- and syn-3-methyl-octane-1,4-diols to obtain corresponding trans- and cis-whisky lactones. In preliminary screening transformations, a wide range of whole bacterial cells were tested on the basis of oxidation activity, which is rarely described in the literature, in contrast to the widely studied lipolytic activity on SSF. Among the different oil cakes tested, biotransformations carried out on linseed cake were characterized by the highest conversion and stereoselectivity. Several preparative-scale oxidations performed in a self-constructed SSF bioreactor catalyzed by Rhodococcus erythropolis DSM44534, Rhodococcus erythropolis PCM2150 and Gordonia rubripertincta PCM2144 afforded optically active trans-(+)-(4S,5R), cis-(+)-(4R,5R) and cis-(-)-(4S,5S) isomers of whisky lactones, respectively. Bacteria of the Rhodococcus, Gordonia, Dietzia and Streptomyces genera carried out transformations with complete conversion after three days. Various extraction methods were applied for the isolation of the products, and among them, the combination of steam distillation with simple extraction were the most efficient. Biotransformations were conducted under precise control of conditions in a bioreactor based on a Raspberry Pi Zero W. The proposed low-cost (ca. USD 100) bioreactor is a standalone system that is fully autoclavable and easy to use.

Recent developments on solid-state fermentation for production of microbial secondary metabolites: Challenges and solutions

Microbial secondary metabolites (SMs) are the intermediate or the product of metabolism produced during fermentation process. SMs are produced during stationary phase and play a major role in competition, antagonism and self defence mechanisms. These metabolites finds application in the pharmaceuticals, food, cosmetics etc. These are produced besides primary key metabolites (e.g., amino acids, lipids, carbohydrates etc.). Growth condition in solid-state fermentation (SSF) resembles microorganism's own native environment allowing the microorganisms to adapt best. Recent developments in bioprocessing has identified specific SSF practices that have a significant impact on SMs production. The practice of SSF, representing new opportunities to design better bioprocessing with potential genetic development goals for expanding the list of exciting SMs. Current updates cover advanced techniques on SSF to improve microbial SMs production and their ease of operation and cost-effective production strategies. Various factors affecting the SSF have been discussed with respect to sustainable development of novel SSF strategies for SMs production.

Production of Lignocellulolytic Enzymes and Biomass of Trametes versicolor from Agro-Industrial Residues in a Novel Fixed-Bed Bioreactor with Natural Convection and Forced Aeration at Pilot Scale

Solid-state fermentation requires the development of more efficient cultivation systems for its industrial application. The objective of this work was to evaluate the effect of aeration regime on the production of biomass and several lignocellulolytic enzymes (laccase, manganese peroxidase, endoxylanase, β-glucosidase, and total cellulases) by Trametes versicolor in a novel fixed-bed solid-state pilot-scale bioreactor. Three regimes were assessed: natural convection, low aeration level (10 min every 6 h at 10 L/h air flowrate), and high aeration level (1 h every 6 h at 10 L/h air flowrate). The mushroom was grown on a medium based on lignocellulosic residues. The design of the bioreactor, as well as the control of aeration, humidity, and temperature of the beds, allowed T. versicolor to grow properly on the medium, reaching a maximum biomass production of 204.7 mg/g dry solid (ds). The influence that aeration regime had on the production of lignocellulolytic enzymes was determined. Low level of forced aeration favored obtaining the highest titers of laccase (6.37 U/g ds) compared to natural convection and high aeration level. The greatest lignin degradation was also verified for low aeration regime. For the first time, pilot scale cultivation of T. versicolor was reported in a fixed-bed bioreactor.

Evolution of World and Brazilian Markets for Enzymes Produced by Solid-state Fermentation: A Patent Analysis

BACKGROUND

The use of enzymes in various industrial processes has become increasingly frequent. When added to productive processes, it can accelerate reactions and generate a number of new products. The solid state fermentation (SSF), among other applications, has been employed also to obtain enzymes.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this prospection was to map registered patent documents about enzymes production by this type of fermentation in the world, identify the most obtained enzymes with patent documents and compilate information about the world and Brazilian enzyme markets.

METHODS

The experimental design was carried out by the keyword-driven scope through the advanced search in the Espacenet database European Patent Office (EPO). The keywords selected were solid-state fermentation and the International Patent Classification code, C12N9 (enzymes; proenzymes), for prospecting of interest.

RESULTS

In 2012, there was the higher number of registered patents (12). China holds 84% of deposited patents. Among the types of depositors, 54% of the selected patent documents were deposited by universities and institutes, and 44% by companies. 76.5% of the evaluated patents used fungi as enzyme producer. Analyzing the enzymes obtained in the registered patents, it is verified that the majority belongs to the group of carbohydrases with 43%, followed by proteases (25%), which are also the two classes of enzymes most commercialized in the market.

CONCLUSION

China holds the majority of the registered patents but North America gets the largest global enzyme market revenue followed by Europe and Pacific Asia. Carbohydrases were the most commercialized enzymes and with the highest number of patents registered. Among the carbohydrases, cellulases, xylanases and amylases are the most frequent in patent registration while being fungi produced.

Cultivation of Medicinal Mushroom Biomass by Solid-State Bioprocessing in Bioreactors

Basidiomycetes of various species and their wide range of pharmaceutically interesting products in the last decades represent one of the most attractive groups of natural products in Asia and North America. Production of fungal fruit bodies using farming technology is hardly covering the market. Comprehensive solid-state technologies and bioreactors are the most promising part for fast and large amount of cultivation of medicinal fungi biomass and its pharmaceutically active products. Wood, agriculture, and food industry wastes represent the main substrates that are in this process delignified and enriched in proteins and highly valuable pharmaceutically active compounds. Research in physiology, basic and applied studies in fungal metabolism, process engineering aspects, and clinical studies in the last two decades represent large contribution to the development of these potentials that initiate the development of new drugs and some of the most attractive over-the-counter human and veterinary remedies. Present article is an overview of the achievements in solid-state technology of the most relevant medicinal mushroom species production in bioreactors. Graphical Abstract.

Different methodologies for sustainability of optimization techniques used in submerged and solid state fermentation

Optimization techniques are considered as a part of nature's way of adjusting to the changes happening around it. There are different factors that establish the optimum working condition or the production of any value-added product. A model is accepted for a particular process after its sustainability has been verified on a statistical and analytical level. Optimization techniques can be divided into categories as statistical, nature inspired and artificial neural network each with its own benefits and usage in particular cases. A brief introduction about subcategories of different techniques that are available and their computational effectivity will be discussed. The main focus of the study revolves around the applicability of these techniques to any particular operation such as submerged fermentation (SmF) and solid state fermentation (SSF), their ability to produce secondary metabolites and the usefulness in the laboratory and industrial level. Primary studies to determine the enzyme activity of different microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and yeast will also be discussed. l-Asparaginase, the most commonly used drugs in the treatment of acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) shall be considered as an example, a short discussion on models used in the production by the processes of SmF and SSF will be discussed to understand the optimization techniques that are being dealt. It is expected that this discussion would help in determining the proper technique that can be used in running any optimization process for different purposes, and would help in making these processes less time-consuming with better output.