A single dose biodegradable vaccine depot that induces persistently high levels of antibody over a year

Enhanced model antigen retention in tissue through topical high-frequency ultrasound treatment

Reproducible control of tissue delivery and retention of a therapeutic agent facilitates the maximization of the efficacy of pharmacotherapy. Despite the proposal of various chemical and physical methods for modulating drug delivery and retention, the choice of the physical modality for this purpose has been limited in clinical practice. Thus, this study proposes a novel strategy for modulating the retention of a model antigen in tissues by using non-tissue-damaging high-frequency ultrasoundAfter the injection of a fluorescently labeled model antigen, followed by brief treatment with high-frequency ultrasound (5-20 MHz), the clearance of the antigen was monitored using a real-time near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging system in vivo. Further, ultrasound treatment increased tissue retention at the site of model antigen administration. The results suggested that high-frequency ultrasound could change the response to a macromolecule injected into the tissue, such as a vaccine, thereby modulating the immune response. The proposed ultrasound-based technology is translatable to clinical settings and benefits from well-established ultrasound technologies that have been employed in various medical applications for decades. Moreover, this approach can be broadly applied to enhance the therapeutic effects of current and future immune-mediated therapeutic systems.

Research Progress on Chitosan Microneedle Arrays in Transdermal Drug Delivery

As a type of transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS), Microneedles (MNs) have garnered significant attention from researchers due to their ability to penetrate the stratum corneum (SC) of the skin, enhance drug permeability and bioavailability, avoid first-pass metabolism, and cause minimal damage to the skin. This makes them particularly suitable for localized transdermal drug delivery. Dissolvable microneedles (DMNs) can encapsulate sensitive particles, provide high drug-loading capacity, and possess biodegradability and biocompatibility, attracting extensive research interest. Chitosan (CS) has been selected as the matrix for manufacturing DMNs due to its excellent properties, including not eliciting an immune response in vivo and having active functional groups such as hydroxyl and amino groups that allow for modifications to impart appropriate mechanical strength and functionality to DMNs for specific applications. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the research status of various chitosan-based microneedles (CSMNs), explores the mechanisms of their dissolution in vivo, and discusses their applications in promoting wound healing, delivering macromolecular drugs, vaccine delivery, and anti-tumor therapies.

Demonstration of Tunable Control over a Delayed-Release Vaccine Using Atomic Layer Deposition

Many vaccines require multiple doses for full efficacy, posing a barrier for patient adherence and protection. One solution to achieve full vaccination may be attained with single-administration vaccines containing multiple controlled release doses. In this study, delayed-release vaccines were generated using atomic layer deposition (ALD) to coat antigen-containing powders with alumina. Using in vitro and in vivo methods, we show that increasing the coat thickness controls the kinetics of antigen release and antibody response, ranging from weeks to months. Our results establish an in vitro-in vivo correlation with a level of tunable control over the antigen release and antibody response times with the potential to impact future vaccine design.

Immune Potentiation of PLGA Controlled-Release Vaccines for Improved Immunological Outcomes

With the emergence of SARS-CoV-2 and the continued emergence of new infectious diseases, there is a need to improve and expand current vaccine technology. Controlled-release subunit vaccines provide several benefits over current vaccines on the market, including the use of less antigen and fewer boost doses. Previously, our group reported molecules that alter NF-κB signaling improved the vaccine's performance and improved adjuvant-related tolerability. In this report, we test how these immune potentiators will influence responses when included as part of a controlled-release poly(lactic-co-glycolic) vaccine formulation. Murine in vivo studies revealed that SN50 and honokiol improved antibody levels at early vaccine time points. Microparticles with SN50 produced strong antibody levels over a longer period compared to microparticles without SN50. The same particles also increased T-cell activity. All of the immune potentiators tested further promoted Th2 humoral responses already exhibited by the control CpG OVA microparticle formulation. Overall, under controlled-release conditions, immune potentiators enhance the existing effects of controlled-release formulations, making it a potentially beneficial additive for controlled-release vaccine formulations.

Lentinan-functionalized graphene oxide hydrogel as a sustained antigen delivery system for vaccines

Hydrogel has been proven to have the ability to deliver antigens continuously to achieve slow vaccine delivery, which makes it a promising candidate for an adjuvant delivery platform. Meanwhile, graphene oxide (GO) has garnered significant attention due to its good biosafety, excellent surface area and easy modification. However, GO exists as weak colloidal particles and poses challenges in self-assembling into a hydrogel structure. Here, we propose an innovative strategy involving self-assembling lentinan-functionalized graphene oxide hydrogel ((LNT-GO Gel) by simply mixing lentinan (LNT)-functionalized GO with polyethylene imide (PEI), which can simultaneously encapsulate antigens, achieve long-lasting release of antigens and generate excellent adjuvant activity. The results indicated that the LNT-GO Gel can control the release of OVA at the injection site and confer targeted delivering capacity to lymph nodes. And the date demonstrates that LNT-GO Gel displays favorable safety and biodegradability in vivo. Moreover, LNT-GO Gel can enhance the activation and maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) in lymph node, induce stronger OVA-specific antibody response, and promote spleen T lymphocyte differentiation, which underscores that LNT-GO Gel has ability to generate stronger antigen-specific humoral and cellular immune responses. Collectively, these results demonstrate the adjuvant potential of the lentinan-functionalized graphene oxide hydrogel (LNT-GO Gel) for subunit vaccine.

Long-acting vaccine delivery systems

Bolus vaccines are often administered multiple times due to rapid clearance and reduced transportation to draining lymph nodes resulting in inadequate activation of T and B lymphocytes. In order to achieve adaptive immunity, prolonged exposure of antigens to these immune cells is crucial. Recent research has been focusing on developing long-acting biomaterial-based vaccine delivery systems, which can modulate the release of encapsulated antigens or epitopes to facilitate enhanced antigen presentation in lymph nodes and subsequently achieve robust T and B cell responses. Over the past few years, various polymers and lipids have been extensively explored to develop effective biomaterial-based vaccine strategies. The article reviews relevant polymer and lipid-based strategies used to prepare long-acting vaccine carriers and discusses their results concerning immune responses.

Mucoadhesive Vaccine Delivery Systems for the Oral Mucosa

Vaccine technology has evolved continuously since its beginning, and mucosal vaccination, including intranasal, sublingual, and oral administrations, has recently gained great scientific interest. The oral mucosa represents a promising minimally invasive route for antigen delivery, mainly at sublingual and buccal mucosal sites, and it is easily accessible, immunologically rich, and able to promote an effective systemic and local immune response. The aim of this review is to provide an updated overview on the technologies for oral mucosal vaccination, with emphasis on mucoadhesive biomaterial-based delivery systems. Polymeric-based nanoparticles, multilayer films and wafers, liposomes, microneedles, and thermoresponsive gels are the most investigated strategies to deliver antigens locally, showing mucoadhesive properties, controlled release of the antigen, and the ability to enhance immunological responses. These formulations have achieved adequate properties in terms of vaccine stability, are minimally invasive, and are easy to produce and manage. To date, oral mucosa vaccine delivery systems represent a promising and open field of research. Future directions should focus on the role of these systems to induce sustained innate and adaptive immune responses, by integrating the recent advances achieved in mucoadhesion with those related to vaccine technology. Being painless, easy to administer, highly stable, safe, and effective, the antigen delivery systems via the oral mucosa may represent a useful and promising strategy for fast mass vaccination, especially during pandemic outbreaks.

Self-Boosting Vaccination Based on Pulsatile Antigen Release from Core-Shell Microparticles

Vaccination is among the most effective ways to prevent infectious diseases. Subunit vaccines are safe but usually require multiple booster shots, which may lead to immunity loss and economic consume. In this study, a self-boosting vaccine is developed based on the pulsatile release of antigen from the core-shell microparticle after single-injection immunization. Self-healing technology applied to form an "antigen core" can avoid organic solvents from destroying the spatial structure of the antigen. The "antigen shell" is built-up by self-assemble of the antigen with the opposite charged polypeptide. Primary immunization occurs with the self-assembled film disintegration, and the booster comes with the microparticle degradation. The changing of antigen-specific antibodies after immunization with the core-shell microparticle vaccine is consistent with that caused by the two shots of immunization. The immune effect and safety evaluation results support the translational potential of this self-boosting core-shell microparticle vaccine.

Buccal and Sublingual Vaccines: A Review on Oral Mucosal Immunization and Delivery Systems

Currently, most vaccines available on the market are for parental use; however, this may not be the best option on several occasions. Mucosal routes of administration such as intranasal, sublingual, and buccal generate great interest due to the benefits they offer. These range from increasing patient compliance to inducing a more effective immune response than that achieved through conventional routes. Due to the activation of the common mucosal immune system, it is possible to generate an effective systemic and local immune response, which is not achieved through parenteral administration. Protection against pathogens that use mucosal entry routes is provided by an effective induction of mucosal immunity. Mucosal delivery systems are being developed, such as films and microneedles, which have proven to be effective, safe, and easy to administer. These systems have multiple advantages over commonly used injections, which are simple to manufacture, stable at room temperature, painless for the patient since they do not require puncture. Therefore, these delivery systems do not require to be administered by medical personnel; in fact, they could be self-administered.

Activation of NLRP3 Inflammasome Complexes by Beta-Tricalcium Phosphate Particles and Stimulation of Immune Cell Migration in vivo

Beta-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) serves as a bone substitute in clinical practice because it is resorbable, biocompatible, osteointegrative, and osteoconductive. Particles of β-TCP are also inflammatory mediators although the mechanism of this function has not been fully elucidated. Regardless, the ability of β-TCP to stimulate the immune system might be useful for immunomodulation. The present study aimed to determine the effects of β-TCP particles on NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome complexes. We found that β-TCP activates NLRP3 inflammasomes, and increases interleukin (IL)-1β production in primary cultured mouse dendritic cells (DCs) and macrophages, and human THP-1 cells in caspase-1 dependent manner. In THP-1 cells, β-TCP increased also IL-18 production, and NLRP3 inflammasome activation by β-TCP depended on phagocytosis, potassium efflux, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. We also investigated the effects of β-TCP in wild-type and NLRP3-deficient mice in vivo. Immune cell migration around subcutaneously injected β-TCP particles was reduced in NLRP3-deficient mice. These findings suggest that the effects of β-TCP particles in vivo are at least partly mediated by NLRP3 inflammasome complexes.

Controlling timing and location in vaccines

Vaccines are one of the most powerful technologies supporting public health. The adaptive immune response induced by immunization arises following appropriate activation and differentiation of T and B cells in lymph nodes. Among many parameters impacting the resulting immune response, the presence of antigen and inflammatory cues for an appropriate temporal duration within the lymph nodes, and further within appropriate subcompartments of the lymph nodes- the right timing and location- play a critical role in shaping cellular and humoral immunity. Here we review recent advances in our understanding of how vaccine kinetics and biodistribution impact adaptive immunity, and the underlying immunological mechanisms that govern these responses. We discuss emerging approaches to engineer these properties for future vaccines, with a focus on subunit vaccines.

Injectable Polypeptide Hydrogel Depot System for Assessment of the Immune Response-Inducing Efficacy of Sustained Antigen Release Alone

Vaccines typically contain an antigen, delivery system (vehicle), and adjuvant, all of which contribute to inducing a potent immune response. Consequently, design of new vaccines is difficult, because the contributions and interactions of these components are difficult to distinguish. Here, it is aimed to develop an easy-to-use, non-immunogenic, injectable depot system for sustained antigen release that will be suitable for assessing the efficacy of prolonged antigen exposure per se for inducing an immune response. This should mimic real-life infections. Recombinant elastin-like polypeptides with periodic cysteine residues (cELPs) are selected, which reportedly show little or no immunogenicity, as carriers and tetanus toxoid (Ttd) as an antigen. After subcutaneous injection of the mixture, cELP rapidly forms a disulfide cross-linked hydrogel in situ, within which Ttd is physically incorporated, affording a biodegradable antigen depot. A series of Ttd-containing hydrogels is examined. A single injection induces high levels of tetanus antibody with high avidity for at least 20 weeks in mice. The chain length of cELP proves critical, whereas differences in hydrophobicity has little effect, although hydrophilic cELPs are more rapidly biodegraded. This system's ability to distinguish the contribution of sustained antigen release to antibody induction should be helpful for rational design of next-generation vaccines.

Targeting the Mincle and TLR3 receptor using the dual agonist cationic adjuvant formulation 9 (CAF09) induces humoral and polyfunctional memory T cell responses in calves

There is a need for the rational design of safe and effective vaccines to protect against chronic bacterial pathogens such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis in a number of species. One of the main challenges for vaccine development is the lack of safe adjuvants that induce protective immune responses. Cationic Adjuvant Formulation 01 (CAF01)—an adjuvant based on trehalose dibehenate (TDB) and targeting the Mincle receptor—has entered human trials based on promising pre-clinical results in a number of species. However, in cattle CAF01 only induces weak systemic immune responses. In this study, we tested the ability of three pattern recognition receptors, either alone or in combination, to activate bovine monocytes and macrophages. We found that addition of the TLR3 agonist, polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (Poly(I:C)) to either one of the Mincle receptor agonists, TDB or monomycoloyl glycerol (MMG), enhanced monocyte activation, and calves vaccinated with CAF09 containing MMG and Poly(I:C) had increased cell-mediated and humoral immune response compared to CAF01 vaccinated animals. In contrast to the highly reactogenic Montanide ISA 61 VG, CAF09-primed T cells maintained a higher frequency of polyfunctional CD4+ T cells (IFN-γ⁺ TNF-α⁺ IL-2⁺). In conclusion, CAF09 supports the development of antibodies along with a high-quality cell-mediated immune response and is a promising alternative to oil-in-water adjuvant in cattle and other ruminants.

Enhancing immunogenicity of antigens through sustained intradermal delivery using chitosan microneedles with a patch-dissolvable design

Reducing the dosage required for vaccination is highly desirable, particularly in cases of epidemic emergencies. This study evaluated the potential of a chitosan microneedle (MN) system with a patch-dissolvable design for low-dose immunization. This system comprises antigen-loaded chitosan MNs and a hydrophilic polyvinyl alcohol/polyvinyl pyrrolidone supporting array patch, which provides extra strength to achieve complete MN insertion and then quickly dissolves in the skin to reduce patch-induced skin irritation. After insertion, MNs could be directly implanted in the dermal layer as an intradermal (ID) depot to allow a sustained release of the model antigen ovalbumin (OVA) for up to 28 days. We found that rats immunized with MNs containing low-dose OVA (approximately 200 μg) had persistently high antibody levels for 18 weeks, which were significantly higher than those observed after an intramuscular injection of full-dose OVA (approximately 500 μg), demonstrating at least 2.5-fold dose sparing. Moreover, OVA-encapsulated chitosan MNs had superior immunogenicity to OVA plus chitosan solution, indicating that MN-based delivery and prolonged skin exposure can further enhance chitosan's adjuvanticity. Therefore, this patch-dissolvable MN system offers a needle-free, accurate, and reliable ID delivery of antigens and has potential as a sustained ID delivery device to improve vaccine efficacy and facilitate dose sparing with existing vaccines.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

This study developed implantable chitosan microneedles (MNs) with a patch-dissolvable design for the sustained intradermal (ID) delivery of antigens and demonstrated their antigen dose-sparing potential. We found that rats immunized with chitosan MNs containing low-dose OVA had persistently high antibody levels for 18 weeks, which were significantly higher than those observed after an intramuscular injection of full-dose OVA, demonstrating at least 2.5-fold dose sparing. Our results indicate that chitosan MNs can not only serve as an efficient vaccine delivery system but also exert their promising adjuvant activity by forming an ID depot for prolonged antigen exposure and activating dendritic cells for promoting immune responses.

An injectable, low-toxicity phospholipid-based phase separation gel that induces strong and persistent immune responses in mice

Sustained antigen delivery using incomplete Freund's adjuvant (IFA) can induce strong, long-term immune response, but it can also cause severe side effects. Here we describe an injectable, phospholipid-based phase separation gel (PPSG) that readily transforms in situ into a drug depot. PPSG loaded with the model antigen ovalbumin (OVA) supported sustained OVA release in mice that lasted nearly one month. Immunizing mice with a single injection of PPSG/OVA elicited a strong and persistent increase in titers of OVA-specific IgG, IgG1 and IgG2a. Co-administering CpG-ODN further increased antibody titers. Such co-administration recruited dendritic cells to injection sites and activated dendritic cells in the draining lymph nodes. Moreover, immunization with PPSG/OVA/CpG resulted in potent memory antibody responses and high frequency of memory T cells. Remarkably, PPSG/OVA/CpG was associated with much lower toxicity at injection sites than IFA/OVA/CpG, and it showed no systemic toxicity such as to lymph nodes or spleen. These findings illustrate the potential of injectable PPSG for sustained, minimally toxic delivery of antigens and adjuvants.

A nanoparticle-based nicotine vaccine and the influence of particle size on its immunogenicity and efficacy

Traditional hapten-protein conjugate nicotine vaccines have shown less than desired immunological efficacy due to their poor recognition and internalization by immune cells. We developed a novel lipid-polymeric hybrid nanoparticle-based nicotine vaccine to enhance the immunogenicity of the conjugate vaccine, and studied the influence of particle size on its immunogenicity and pharmacokinetic efficacy. The results demonstrated that the nanovaccines, regardless of size, could induce a significantly stronger immune response against nicotine compared to the conjugate vaccine. Particularly, a significantly higher anti-nicotine antibody titer was achieved by the 100 compared to the 500nm nanovaccine. In addition, both the 100 and 500nm nanovaccines reduced the distribution of nicotine into the brain significantly. The 100nm nanovaccine exhibited better pharmacokinetic efficacy than the 500nm nanovaccine in the presence of alum adjuvant. These results suggest that a lipid-polymeric nanoparticle-based nicotine vaccine is a promising candidate to treat nicotine dependence.

The mechanism of action of acid-soluble chitosan as an adjuvant in the formulation of nasally administered vaccine against HBV

Recently, numerous attempts have been made to evaluate the potential of chitosan as an adjuvant; however, few have explored the mechanism underlying the adjuvant activity of chitosan.

Engineering New Approaches to Cancer Vaccines

Recently, a number of promising approaches have been developed using synthetic chemistry, materials science, and bioengineering-based strategies to address challenges in the design of more effective cancer vaccines. At the stage of initial priming, potency can be improved by maximizing vaccine delivery to lymph nodes. Because lymphatic uptake from peripheral tissues is strongly size dependent, antigens and adjuvants packaged into optimally sized nanoparticles access the lymph node with much greater efficiency than unformulated vaccines. Once primed, T cells must home to the tumor site. Because T cells acquire the necessary surface receptors in the local lymph node draining the tissue of interest, vaccines must be engineered that reach organs, such as the lung and gut, which are common sites of tumor lesions but inaccessible by traditional vaccination routes. Particulate vaccine carriers can improve antigen exposure in these organs, resulting in greater lymphocyte priming. Immunomodulatory agents can also be injected directly into the tumor site to stimulate a systemic response capable of clearing even distal lesions; materials have been designed that entrap or slowly release immunomodulators at the tumor site, reducing systemic exposure and improving therapeutic efficacy. Finally, lessons learned from the design of biomaterial-based scaffolds in regenerative medicine have led to the development of implantable vaccines that recruit and activate antigen-presenting cells to drive antitumor immunity. Overall, these engineering strategies represent an expanding toolkit to create safe and effective cancer vaccines.