Synthesis, G-quadruplexes DNA binding, and photocytotoxicity of novel cationic expanded porphyrins

Porphyrins as Chiroptical Conformational Probes for Biomolecules

Porphyrins are highly conjugated macrocyclic compounds that possess exceptional photophysical and chemical properties, progressively establishing themselves as versatile tools in the structural investigation of biomolecules. This review explores their role as chiroptical conformational probes, focusing on their interactions with DNA and RNA. The planar electron rich structure of porphyrin macrocycle that promote π-π interactions, their easy functionalization at the meso positions, and their capacity to coordinate metal ions enable their use in probing nucleic acid structures with high sensitivity. Emphasis is placed on their induced circular dichroism (ICD) signals in the Soret region, which provide precise diagnostic insights into binding mechanisms and molecular interactions. The review examines the interactions of porphyrins with various DNA structures, including B-, Z-, and A-DNA, single-stranded DNA, and G-quadruplex DNA, as well as less common structures like I-motif and E-motif DNA. The last part highlights recent advancements in the use of porphyrins to probe RNA structures, emphasizing binding behaviors and chiroptical signals observed with RNA G-quadruplexes, as well as the challenges in interpreting ICD signals with other RNA motifs due to their inherent structural complexity.

Neurotransmitters and neural hormone-based probes for quadruplex DNA sequences associated with neurodegenerative diseases

The potential of neurotransmitters and neural hormones as possible G-quadruplex DNA binders was analyzed using fluorescence spectroscopy, surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS), DNA melting analysis, and molecular docking. G-quadruplex sequences, (GGC)3 and G4C2, with roles in Fragile X syndrome and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), respectively, were selected, and their interactions with melatonin, serotonin, and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), were studied. Both melatonin and serotonin demonstrated strong interactions with the DNA sequences with hydrogen bonding being the primary mode of interaction, with some non-intercalative interactions involving the π systems. GABA demonstrated much weaker interactions and may not be a suitable candidate as a probe for low concentrations of G-quadruplex DNA.

Proton-Transfer Reactions in One-Electron-Oxidized G-Quadruplexes: A Density Functional Theory Study

Recently, G-quadruplexes (Gq) formed in B-DNA as secondary structures are found to be important therapeutic targets and material for developing nanodevices. Gq are guanine-rich and thus susceptible to oxidative damage by producing short-lived intermediate radicals via proton-transfer reactions. Understanding the mechanisms of radical formation in Gq is of fundamental interest to understand the early stages of DNA damage. Herein, we used density functional theory including aqueous phase (ωB97XD-PCM/6-31++G**) and considered single layer of Gq [G-quartets (G4): association of four guanines in a cyclic Hoogsteen hydrogen-bonded arrangement (Scheme 1)] to unravel the mechanisms of formation of intermediates by calculating the relative Gibbs free energies and spin density distributions of one-electron-oxidized G4 and its various proton-transfer states: G^•+, G(N₁-H)^•, G(N₂-H')^•, G(N₂-H″)^•, G(N₁-H)^•-(H⁺O₆)G, and G(N₂-H)^•-(H⁺N₇)G. The present calculation predicts the formation of G(N₂-H)^•-(H⁺N₇)G, which is only ca. 0.8 kcal/mol higher in energy than the initially formed G^•+. The formation of G(N₂-H)^•-(H⁺N₇)G plays a key role in explaining the formation of 8-OG along with G(N₁-H)^• formation via tautomerization from G(N₂-H)^•, as proposed recently.

VEGF aptamer/i-motif-grafted multi-functional SPION nanocarrier for chemotherapeutic/phototherapeutic synergistic research

Chemotherapeutic agents and photosensitizers often suffer from poor tumor selectivity, high side toxicity, or low water solubility. To address these problems, various drug delivery systems (DDS) have been explored but most of them are toxic, difficult to synthesize, or of single function. In order to design a highly biocompatible, conveniently prepared, multi-functional drug delivery system, herein, an aptamer of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and a cytosine (C)-DNA fragment were grafted on the surface of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION), and then a chemotherapeutic agent daunomycin (DNM) and a photosensitizer 5, 10, 15, 20-tetra (phenyl-4-N-methyl-4-pyridyl) porphyrin (TMPyP) were self-assembled with the hybridized VEGF-based DNA structure. By loading DNM and TMPyP, the DDS displayed strong chemotherapeutic/phototherapeutic capability against cancer cells via mechanisms such as mitochondrial dysfunction and ROS elevation, which triggered the apoptosis of the tumor cells. The dual delivery of chemotherapeutical agents and photosensitizers with aptamer/C-rich DNA successfully integrated the functions of pH stimuli-responsive drug release and chemotherapeutic/phototherapeutic modalities into one single system and thus could be considered as an ideal drug delivery vehicle with great potential in clinic.

VEGF aptamer/i-motif-based drug co-delivery system for combined chemotherapy and photodynamic therapy

BACKGROUND

Nucleic acids used as drug delivery systems (DDS) have gained attention because of their biosafety and effortless synthesis. G-quadruplex (G4) structured aptamer such as AS1411 was frequently employed to deliver photosensitizers or chemotherapeutic agents while other aptamers were seldomly reported in this field.

METHODS

Herein, a chemical anticancer drug daunomycin (DNM), and a photosensitizer 5, 10, 15, 20-tetra (phenyl-4-N-methyl-4-pyridyl) porphyrin (TMPyP) were physically assembled with a novel DNA structure composed of an aptamer of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and a cytosine (C)-rich DNA fragment (gc-34). Spectral and molecular mimicking methods were employed to research the drug loading/releasing process. The in vitro cytotoxicity was studied by MTT, ROS, cell cycle, and cell apoptotic assays and the in vivo anticancer efficiency was evaluated by the inhibitive effect on the cancerous growth of MCF-7 tumor-bearing nude mice.

RESULTS

The G4-structured VEGF aptamer delivered TMPyP successfully for the first time. The designed DDS displayed sensitive VEGF/pH controlled drug release. The co-delivery of DNM and TMPyP exhibited high ROS production, significant cell cycle arresting and evident cell apoptosis, and displayed superior cytotoxicity against tumor cells compared with individual agents in vitro. In vivo studies showed that the dual-drug loaded system can greatly inhibit tumor growth with chemotherapeutic/photodynamic synergistic effects.

CONCLUSION

The co-delivery of DNM and TMPyP with aptamer/C-rich DNA successfully integrates the functions of VEGF/pH stimuli-responsive drug release and chemotherapeutic/phototherapeutic modalities into one single system, and may have great potential in cancer treatment.

Gold(III) porphyrins: Synthesis and interaction with G-quadruplex DNA

G-quadruplex nucleic acids (G4s) are RNA and DNA secondary structures involved in the regulation of multiple key biological processes. They can be found in telomeres, oncogene promoters, RNAs, but also in viral genomes. Due to their unique structural features, very distinct from the canonical duplexes or single-strands, G4s represent promising pharmacological targets for small molecules, namely G4-ligands. Gold(III) penta-cationic porphyrins, as specific G4 ligands, are able to inhibit HIV-1 infectivity and their antiviral activity correlates with their affinity for G4s. Up to now, one of the best antiviral compounds is meso-5,10,15,20-tetrakis[4-(N-methyl-pyridinium-2-yl)phenyl]porphyrinato gold(III) (1). Starting from this compound, we report a structure/affinity relationship study of gold(III) cationic porphyrins to find out the best porphyrin candidate for functionalization, in order to study the antiviral mechanism of action of these gold(III) porphyrins.

Interactions of porphyrins with DNA: A review focusing recent advances in chemical modifications on porphyrins as artificial nucleases

The advance of porphyrins as artificial nucleases along the years have developed a class of compounds having potential therapeutic applications. Being an extrovert of chemistry, a variety of chemical modifications have been done on porphyrin macrocycle in order to improve the spectroscopic properties and to adapt as artificial receptors that can recognize molecules. The last twenty years has witnessed broad research in the arena of porphyrin- DNA interactions and their evolution from simple to more complex entities. In this review, we summarize the recent advances in the porphyrin-based structural modifications, with a specific emphasis on various effects of porphyrin on DNA cleavage potency. We particularly detailed the nuclease activity of cationic and anionic porphyrins, porphyrin dimers and conjugates as well as heme proteins till the third generation porphyrins as artificial nucleases.

Aptamer-assisted superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles as multifunctional drug delivery platform for chemo-photodynamic combination therapy

Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPION) were widely employed as targeted drug delivery platform due to their unique magnetic property and effortless surface modification. However, the lack of targeting accuracy has been a big obstacle for SPION used in precise medicine. Herein, the tumor-targeting of SPION was enhanced by the conjugation of an aptamer-hybridized nucleic acid structure. The aptamer modified on the surface of SPION was composed of a double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) and a G-quadruplex DNA (AS1411) structure, which carried a chemical anticancer drug, daunomycin (DNM) and a photosensitizer molecule, namely 5, 10, 15, 20-tetra (phenyl-4-N-methyl-4-pyridyl) porphyrin (TMPyP), respectively. The aptamer-dsDNA conjugated SPION nanocarriers (named Apt-S8@SPION) exhibited good stability in serum and nuclease DNase I. The drug-loaded nanocarriers (TMPyP&DNM&Apt-S8@SPION) have high cellular cytotoxicity to A549 and C26 cells which are represently nucleolin-overexpressing cancer cells. The nucleolin-blocking experiments unambiguously evidenced that the formed nanomedicine could target to the cell surface via the specific AS1411-nucleolin interaction, which increased the efficiency of cell uptake. Meanwhile, the TMPyP&DNM&Apt-S8@SPION nanospheres could produce cytotoxic reactive oxygen species efficiently by irradiation of visible light for establishing a new type of PDT to cancer cells. Therefore, the designed TMPyP&DNM&Apt-S8@SPION nanoparticles have magnetic-aptamer dual targeting and combined chemo-photodynamic therapy, and thus were supposed to be ideal drug delivery vehicles with great potential in the era of precision medicine.

Synthesis of asymmetric guanidiniumphenyl-aminophenyl porphyrins

The symmetric meso-tetrakis(4-aminophenyl)porphyrin was reacted with nonstoichiometric amount of [Formula: see text],[Formula: see text]-bis(tert-butoxycarbonyl)-[Formula: see text]-methylisothiourea with respect to the amine functions of the porphyrin to afford (after deprotection of the Boc residues) the asymmetric guanidiniumphenyl-aminophenyl porphyrins carrying two or three guanidiniumphenyl substituents at the meso-position. The adjacent and opposite isomers of the bis(guanidiniumphenyl) modified porphyrins were isolated separately.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of 4-anilinoquinazoline derivatives as new c-myc G-quadruplex ligands

A series of 4-anilinoquinazoline derivatives were designed and synthesized as novel c-myc promoter G-quadruplex binding ligands. Subsequent biophysical and biochemical evaluation demonstrated that the introduction of aniline group at 4-position of quinazoline ring and two side chains with terminal amino group improved their binding affinity and stabilizing ability to G-quadruplex DNA. RT-PCR assay and Western blot showed that compound 7a could down-regulate transcription and expression of c-myc gene in Hela cells, which was consistent with the behavior of an effective G-quadruplex ligand targeting c-myc oncogene. More importantly, RTCA and colony formation assays indicated that 7a obviously inhibited Hela cells proliferation, without influence on normal primary cultured mouse mesangial cells. Flow cytometric assays suggested that 7a induced Hela cells to arrest in G0/G1 phase both in a time-dependent and dose-dependent manner.

Surface complex of ZnTMPyP4 metalloporphyrin with double-stranded Poly(A)-Poly(U)

This communication presents synthesis and spectral characterization of metalloporphyrin [Zn(X)TMPyP4] (TMPyP4 is 5,10,15,20-tetrakis (N-methylpyridinium-4-yl)porphyrin), and studies its binding onto anionic surface sites of synthetic double stranded polynucleotide Poly(A)-Poly(U). [Zn(X)TMPyP4] binding with Poly(A)-Poly(U) was monitored by UV-Vis absorbance spectroscopy, two fluorescence spectroscopies and 1H NMR in a working aqueous medium of 0.15M ionic strength, pH7.0 and at 25°C. The evidence provided by spectroscopic measurements and multivariate data analysis suggests the use of this metalloporphyrin as a probe for investigation of the polynucleotide surface. In contrast to TMPyP4 intercalation, an outside adsorption of [Zn(X)TMPyP4] induces an attenuation of luminescence intensity and has little influence on the shape of luminescence band. Special attention was paid to the quantitative description of the interaction between neighboring ligands on the Poly(A)-Poly(U) surface. The intrinsic binding constant to an isolated binding site lgKin 5.8±0.1, the cooperativity parameter ω 1.8±0.2, and number of monomers occupied by a ligand n=2 (25°C; pH7.0) were calculated based upon the recently proposed non-linear least-squares fitting procedure. The discovered cooperativity of binding of [Zn(X)TMPyP4] metalloporphyrin to Poly(A)-Poly(U) is significantly lower as compared to free porphyrin TMPyP4, reflecting minimal mutual influence between the nearest neighboring ligands bound with functional PO4(-) groups of the polynucleotide surface.

Cationic porphyrin@SPION nanospheres as multifunctional anticancer therapeutics: magnetic targeting, photodynamic potential and bio-safety research

Porphyrin@SPION nanospheres are described as pH-controllable, multifunctional photosensitizations with delivery bio-safety.