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August I, Semendeferi K, Marchetto MC. Brain aging, Alzheimer's disease, and the role of stem cells in primate comparative studies. J Comp Neurol 2022; 530:2940-2953. [PMID: 35929189 DOI: 10.1002/cne.25394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Revised: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease that is ultimately fatal. Currently, millions of Americans are living with AD, and this number is predicted to grow with increases in the aging population. Interestingly, despite the prevalence of AD in human populations, the full AD phenotype has not been observed in any nonhuman primate (NHP) species, and it has been suggested that NHPs are immune to neurodegenerative diseases such as AD. Here, we review the typical age-related changes and pathologies in humans along with the neuropathologic changes associated with AD, and we place this information in the context of the comparative neuropathology of NHPs. We further propose the use of induced pluripotent stem cell technology as a way of addressing initial molecular processes and changes that occur in neurons and glia (in both humans and NHPs) when exposed to AD-inducing pathology prior to cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel August
- Department of Anthropology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Katerina Semendeferi
- Department of Anthropology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA.,Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny (CARTA), San Diego, California, USA
| | - Maria Carolina Marchetto
- Department of Anthropology, University of California, San Diego, San Diego, California, USA.,Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny (CARTA), San Diego, California, USA
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2
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Mora-Bermúdez F, Taverna E, Huttner WB. From stem and progenitor cells to neurons in the developing neocortex: key differences among hominids. FEBS J 2021; 289:1524-1535. [PMID: 33638923 DOI: 10.1111/febs.15793] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Comparing the biology of humans to that of other primates, and notably other hominids, is a useful path to learn more about what makes us human. Some of the most interesting differences among hominids are closely related to brain development and function, for example behaviour and cognition. This makes it particularly interesting to compare the hominid neural cells of the neocortex, a part of the brain that plays central roles in those processes. However, well-preserved tissue from great apes is usually extremely difficult to obtain. A variety of new alternative tools, for example brain organoids, are now beginning to make it possible to search for such differences and analyse their potential biological and biomedical meaning. Here, we present an overview of recent findings from comparisons of the neural stem and progenitor cells (NSPCs) and neurons of hominids. In addition to differences in proliferation and differentiation of NSPCs, and maturation of neurons, we highlight that the regulation of the timing of these processes is emerging as a general foundational difference in the development of the neocortex of hominids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felipe Mora-Bermúdez
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany.,Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Elena Taverna
- Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Wieland B Huttner
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
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3
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Mostajo-Radji MA, Schmitz MT, Montoya ST, Pollen AA. Reverse engineering human brain evolution using organoid models. Brain Res 2020; 1729:146582. [PMID: 31809699 PMCID: PMC7058376 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2019.146582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2019] [Revised: 11/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/29/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Primate brains vary dramatically in size and organization, but the genetic and developmental basis for these differences has been difficult to study due to lack of experimental models. Pluripotent stem cells and brain organoids provide a potential opportunity for comparative and functional studies of evolutionary differences, particularly during the early stages of neurogenesis. However, many challenges remain, including isolating stem cell lines from additional great ape individuals and species to capture the breadth of ape genetic diversity, improving the reproducibility of organoid models to study evolved differences in cell composition and combining multiple brain regions to capture connectivity relationships. Here, we describe strategies for identifying evolved developmental differences between humans and non-human primates and for isolating the underlying cellular and genetic mechanisms using comparative analyses, chimeric organoid culture, and genome engineering. In particular, we focus on how organoid models could ultimately be applied beyond studies of progenitor cell evolution to decode the origin of recent changes in cellular organization, connectivity patterns, myelination, synaptic development, and physiology that have been implicated in human cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed A Mostajo-Radji
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Matthew T Schmitz
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Sebastian Torres Montoya
- Health Co-creation Laboratory, Medellin General Hospital, Medellin, Antioquia, Colombia; Baskin School of Engineering, University of California Santa Cruz, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
| | - Alex A Pollen
- Department of Neurology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA; The Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
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4
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Abstract
Human brain organoids, generated from pluripotent stem cells, have emerged as a promising technique for modeling early stages of human neurodevelopment in controlled laboratory conditions. Although the applications for disease modeling in a dish have become routine, the use of these brain organoids as evolutionary tools is only now getting momentum. Here, we will review the current state of the art on the use of brain organoids from different species and the molecular and cellular insights generated from these studies. Besides, we will discuss how this model might be beneficial for human health and the limitations and future perspectives of this technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alysson R. Muotri
- Department of Pediatrics/Rady Children's Hospital San Diego, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Department of Cellular & Molecular Medicine, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA, USA
- UCSD Stem Cell Programme, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Center for Academic Research and Training in Anthropogeny (CARTA), La Jolla, CA, USA
- Kavli Institute for Brain and Mind, University of California San Diego, School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA, USA
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5
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Sherwood CC, Bradley BJ. Brain Evolution: Mapping the Inner Neandertal. Curr Biol 2019; 29:R95-R97. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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6
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Standards for Deriving Nonhuman Primate-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells, Neural Stem Cells and Dopaminergic Lineage. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19092788. [PMID: 30227600 PMCID: PMC6164693 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19092788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2018] [Revised: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 09/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Humans and nonhuman primates (NHP) are similar in behavior and in physiology, specifically the structure, function, and complexity of the immune system. Thus, NHP models are desirable for pathophysiology and pharmacology/toxicology studies. Furthermore, NHP-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) may enable transformative developmental, translational, or evolutionary studies in a field of inquiry currently hampered by the limited availability of research specimens. NHP-iPSCs may address specific questions that can be studied back and forth between in vitro cellular assays and in vivo experimentations, an investigational process that in most cases cannot be performed on humans because of safety and ethical issues. The use of NHP model systems and cell specific in vitro models is evolving with iPSC-based three-dimensional (3D) cell culture systems and organoids, which may offer reliable in vitro models and reduce the number of animals used in experimental research. IPSCs have the potential to give rise to defined cell types of any organ of the body. However, standards for deriving defined and validated NHP iPSCs are missing. Standards for deriving high-quality iPSC cell lines promote rigorous and replicable scientific research and likewise, validated cell lines reduce variability and discrepancies in results between laboratories. We have derived and validated NHP iPSC lines by confirming their pluripotency and propensity to differentiate into all three germ layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) according to standards and measurable limits for a set of marker genes. The iPSC lines were characterized for their potential to generate neural stem cells and to differentiate into dopaminergic neurons. These iPSC lines are available to the scientific community. NHP-iPSCs fulfill a unique niche in comparative genomics to understand gene regulatory principles underlying emergence of human traits, in infectious disease pathogenesis, in vaccine development, and in immunological barriers in regenerative medicine.
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Linker SB, Marchetto MC, Narvaiza I, Denli AM, Gage FH. Examining non-LTR retrotransposons in the context of the evolving primate brain. BMC Biol 2017; 15:68. [PMID: 28800766 PMCID: PMC5554003 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-017-0409-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Researchers have long sought to understand the genetic basis of the cognitive differences between primates, with particular focus on the human brain. Although all mutational types have worked in concert with evolutionary forces to generate the current human brain, in this review we will explore the impact of mobile elements, specifically non-LTR retrotransposons. Non-LTR retrotransposons have contributed coding and regulatory sequences to the genome throughout evolution. During primate evolution there have been multiple waves of LINE retrotransposition as well as the birth of new mobile elements such as the SINEs Alu and SVA and we will explore what kinds of impacts these may have had on the evolving human brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara B Linker
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, 92037-1002, USA
| | - Maria C Marchetto
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, 92037-1002, USA
| | - Iñigo Narvaiza
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, 92037-1002, USA
| | - Ahmet M Denli
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, 92037-1002, USA
| | - Fred H Gage
- Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA, 92037-1002, USA.
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8
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Sousa AMM, Meyer KA, Santpere G, Gulden FO, Sestan N. Evolution of the Human Nervous System Function, Structure, and Development. Cell 2017; 170:226-247. [PMID: 28708995 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2017.06.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 244] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2016] [Revised: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 06/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The nervous system-in particular, the brain and its cognitive abilities-is among humans' most distinctive and impressive attributes. How the nervous system has changed in the human lineage and how it differs from that of closely related primates is not well understood. Here, we consider recent comparative analyses of extant species that are uncovering new evidence for evolutionary changes in the size and the number of neurons in the human nervous system, as well as the cellular and molecular reorganization of its neural circuits. We also discuss the developmental mechanisms and underlying genetic and molecular changes that generate these structural and functional differences. As relevant new information and tools materialize at an unprecedented pace, the field is now ripe for systematic and functionally relevant studies of the development and evolution of human nervous system specializations.
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Affiliation(s)
- André M M Sousa
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Kyle A Meyer
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Gabriel Santpere
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Forrest O Gulden
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Nenad Sestan
- Department of Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Section of Comparative Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Program in Cellular Neuroscience, Neurodegeneration and Repair, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Yale Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA; Kavli Institute for Neuroscience, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
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9
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Lew CH, Brown C, Bellugi U, Semendeferi K. Neuron density is decreased in the prefrontal cortex in Williams syndrome. Autism Res 2016; 10:99-112. [PMID: 27520580 DOI: 10.1002/aur.1677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2016] [Revised: 07/01/2016] [Accepted: 07/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Williams Syndrome (WS) is a rare neurodevelopmental disorder associated with a hemideletion in chromosome 7, which manifests a distinct behavioral phenotype characterized by a hyperaffiliative social drive, in striking contrast to the social avoidance behaviors that are common in Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). MRI studies have observed structural and functional abnormalities in WS cortex, including the prefrontal cortex (PFC), a region implicated in social cognition. This study utilizes the Bellugi Williams Syndrome Brain Collection, a unique resource that comprises the largest WS postmortem brain collection in existence, and is the first to quantitatively examine WS PFC cytoarchitecture. We measured neuron density in layers II/III and V/VI of five cortical areas: PFC areas BA 10 and BA 11, primary motor BA 4, primary somatosensory BA 3, and visual area BA 18 in six matched pairs of WS and typically developing (TD) controls. Neuron density in PFC was lower in WS relative to TD, with layers V/VI demonstrating the largest decrease in density, reaching statistical significance in BA 10. In contrast, BA 3 and BA 18 demonstrated a higher density in WS compared to TD, although this difference was not statistically significant. Neuron density in BA 4 was similar in WS and TD. While other cortical areas were altered in WS, prefrontal areas appeared to be most affected. Neuron density is also altered in the PFC of individuals with ASD. Together these findings suggest that the PFC is targeted in neurodevelopmental disorders associated with sociobehavioral alterations. Autism Res 2017, 10: 99-112. © 2016 International Society for Autism Research, Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Horton Lew
- Department of Anthropology, Social Sciences Building Rm. 210, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093
| | - Chelsea Brown
- Department of Anthropology, Social Sciences Building Rm. 210, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093.,Graduate Program in Neuroscience and Behavior, Building 251, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, 93106
| | - Ursula Bellugi
- Laboratory for Cognitive Neuroscience, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 N, Torrey Pines Rd, La Jolla, CA, 92037
| | - Katerina Semendeferi
- Department of Anthropology, Social Sciences Building Rm. 210, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA, 92093
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10
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Ramaswamy K, Yik WY, Wang XM, Oliphant EN, Lu W, Shibata D, Ryder OA, Hacia JG. Derivation of induced pluripotent stem cells from orangutan skin fibroblasts. BMC Res Notes 2015; 8:577. [PMID: 26475477 PMCID: PMC4609060 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-015-1567-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 10/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Orangutans are an endangered species whose natural habitats are restricted to the Southeast Asian islands of Borneo and Sumatra. Along with the African great apes, orangutans are among the closest living relatives to humans. For potential species conservation and functional genomics studies, we derived induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) from cryopreserved somatic cells obtained from captive orangutans. Results Primary skin fibroblasts from two Sumatran orangutans were transduced with retroviral vectors expressing the human OCT4, SOX2, KLF4, and c-MYC factors. Candidate orangutan iPSCs were characterized by global gene expression and DNA copy number analysis. All were consistent with pluripotency and provided no evidence of large genomic insertions or deletions. In addition, orangutan iPSCs were capable of producing cells derived from all three germ layers in vitro through embryoid body differentiation assays and in vivo through teratoma formation in immune-compromised mice. Conclusions We demonstrate that orangutan skin fibroblasts are capable of being reprogrammed into iPSCs with hallmark molecular signatures and differentiation potential. We suggest that reprogramming orangutan somatic cells in genome resource banks could provide new opportunities for advancing assisted reproductive technologies relevant for species conservation efforts. Furthermore, orangutan iPSCs could have applications for investigating the phenotypic relevance of genomic changes that occurred in the human, African great ape, and/or orangutan lineages. This provides opportunities for orangutan cell culture models that would otherwise be impossible to develop from living donors due to the invasive nature of the procedures required for obtaining primary cells. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13104-015-1567-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krishna Ramaswamy
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Wing Yan Yik
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Xiao-Ming Wang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Erin N Oliphant
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Wange Lu
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Darryl Shibata
- Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
| | - Oliver A Ryder
- San Diego Zoo Institute for Conservation Research , San Diego Zoo Global, San Diego, CA, USA.
| | - Joseph G Hacia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA.
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11
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Garbett KA, Vereczkei A, Kálmán S, Brown JA, Taylor WD, Faludi G, Korade Ž, Shelton RC, Mirnics K. Coordinated messenger RNA/microRNA changes in fibroblasts of patients with major depression. Biol Psychiatry 2015; 77:256-265. [PMID: 25016317 PMCID: PMC4254393 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2013] [Revised: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 05/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Peripheral biomarkers for major psychiatric disorders have been an elusive target for the last half a century. Dermal fibroblasts are a simple, relevant, and much underutilized model for studying molecular processes of patients with affective disorders, as they share considerable similarity of signal transduction with neuronal tissue. METHODS Cultured dermal fibroblast samples from patients with major depressive disorder (MDD) and matched control subjects (n = 16 pairs, 32 samples) were assayed for genome-wide messenger RNA (mRNA) expression using microarrays. In addition, a simultaneous quantitative polymerase chain reaction-based assessment of >1000 microRNA (miRNA) species was performed. Finally, to test the relationship between the mRNA-miRNA expression changes, the two datasets were correlated with each other. RESULTS Our data revealed that MDD fibroblasts, when compared with matched control subjects, showed a strong mRNA gene expression pattern change in multiple molecular pathways, including cell-to-cell communication, innate/adaptive immunity, and cell proliferation. Furthermore, the same patient fibroblasts showed altered expression of a distinct panel of 38 miRNAs, which putatively targeted many of the differentially expressed mRNAs. The miRNA-mRNA expression changes appeared to be functionally connected, as the majority of the miRNA and mRNA changes were in the opposite direction. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggest that combined miRNA-mRNA assessments are informative about the disease process and that analyses of dermal fibroblasts might lead to the discovery of promising peripheral biomarkers of MDD that could be potentially used to aid the diagnosis and allow mechanistic testing of disturbed molecular pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andrea Vereczkei
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; Institute for Medical Chemistry, Molecular Biology and Pathobiochemistry, Semmelweis University, Budapest
| | - Sára Kálmán
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, Szeged
| | - Jacquelyn A Brown
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Warren D Taylor
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Gábor Faludi
- Department of Psychiatry, Kútvölgyi Clinical Centre, Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Željka Korade
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; Vanderbilt Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development (ZK, KM), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
| | - Richard C Shelton
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Károly Mirnics
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee; Department of Psychiatry, University of Szeged, Szeged; Vanderbilt Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development (ZK, KM), Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee..
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12
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Enard W. Mouse models of human evolution. Curr Opin Genet Dev 2014; 29:75-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gde.2014.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Revised: 08/13/2014] [Accepted: 08/23/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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13
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Hanson KL, Hrvoj-Mihic B, Semendeferi K. A dual comparative approach: integrating lines of evidence from human evolutionary neuroanatomy and neurodevelopmental disorders. BRAIN, BEHAVIOR AND EVOLUTION 2014; 84:135-55. [PMID: 25247986 DOI: 10.1159/000365409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The evolution of the human brain has been marked by a nearly 3-fold increase in size since our divergence from the last common ancestor shared with chimpanzees and bonobos. Despite increased interest in comparative neuroanatomy and phylogenetic methods, relatively little is known regarding the effects that this enlargement has had on its internal organization, and how certain areas of the brain have differentially expanded over evolutionary time. Analyses of the microstructure of several regions of the human cortex and subcortical structures have demonstrated subtle changes at the cellular and molecular level, suggesting that the human brain is more than simply a 'scaled-up' primate brain. Ongoing research in comparative neuroanatomy has much to offer regarding our understanding of human brain evolution. Through analysis of the neuroanatomical phenotype at the level of reorganization in cytoarchitecture and cellular morphology, new data continue to highlight changes in cell density and organization associated with volumetric changes in discrete regions. An understanding of the functional significance of variation in neural circuitry can further be approached through studies of atypical human development. Many neurodevelopmental disorders cause disruption in systems associated with uniquely human features of cognition, including language and social cognition. Understanding the genetic and developmental mechanisms that underlie variation in the human cognitive phenotype can help to clarify the functional significance of interspecific variation. By uniting approaches from comparative neuroanatomy and neuropathology, insights can be gained that clarify trends in human evolution. Here, we explore these lines of evidence and their significance for understanding functional variation between species as well as within neuropathological variation in the human brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kari L Hanson
- Department of Anthropology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, Calif., USA
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14
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Gamo NJ, Sawa A. Human stem cells and surrogate tissues for basic and translational study of mental disorders. Biol Psychiatry 2014; 75:918-9. [PMID: 24862565 PMCID: PMC4302385 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2014] [Accepted: 03/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Akira Sawa
- Department of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland.
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