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Mohammadi M, Alian M, Dale B, Ubanwa B, Balan V. Multifaced application of AFEX-pretreated biomass in producing second-generation biofuels, ruminant animal feed, and value-added bioproducts. Biotechnol Adv 2024; 72:108341. [PMID: 38499256 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2024.108341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2024] [Revised: 03/06/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
Lignocellulosic biomass holds a crucial position in the prospective bio-based economy, serving as a sustainable and renewable source for a variety of bio-based products. These products play a vital role in displacing fossil fuels and contributing to environmental well-being. However, the inherent recalcitrance of biomass poses a significant obstacle to the efficient access of sugar polymers. Consequently, the bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass into fermentable sugars remains a prominent challenge in biorefinery processes to produce biofuels and biochemicals. In addressing these challenges, extensive efforts have been dedicated to mitigating biomass recalcitrance through diverse pretreatment methods. One noteworthy process is Ammonia Fiber Expansion (AFEX) pretreatment, characterized by its dry-to-dry nature and minimal water usage. The volatile ammonia, acting as a catalyst in the process, is recyclable. AFEX contributes to cleaning biomass ester linkages and facilitating the opening of cell wall structures, enhancing enzyme accessibility and leading to a fivefold increase in sugar conversion compared to untreated biomass. Over the last decade, AFEX has demonstrated substantial success in augmenting the efficiency of biomass conversion processes. This success has unlocked the potential for sustainable and economically viable biorefineries. This paper offers a comprehensive review of studies focusing on the utilization of AFEX-pretreated biomass in the production of second-generation biofuels, ruminant feed, and additional value-added bioproducts like enzymes, lipids, proteins, and mushrooms. It delves into the details of the AFEX pretreatment process at both laboratory and pilot scales, elucidates the mechanism of action, and underscores the role of AFEX in the biorefinery for developing biofuels and bioproducts, and nutritious ruminant animal feed production. While highlighting the strides made, the paper also addresses current challenges in the commercialization of AFEX pretreatment within biorefineries. Furthermore, it outlines critical considerations that must be addressed to overcome these challenges, ensuring the continued progress and widespread adoption of AFEX in advancing sustainable and economically viable bio-based industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maedeh Mohammadi
- Department of Engineering Technology, Cullen College of Engineering, University of Houston, Sugarland, TX 77479, USA
| | - Mahsa Alian
- Department of Engineering Technology, Cullen College of Engineering, University of Houston, Sugarland, TX 77479, USA
| | - Bruce Dale
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824, USA
| | - Bryan Ubanwa
- Department of Engineering Technology, Cullen College of Engineering, University of Houston, Sugarland, TX 77479, USA
| | - Venkatesh Balan
- Department of Engineering Technology, Cullen College of Engineering, University of Houston, Sugarland, TX 77479, USA.
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Zhai R, Hu J, Jin M. Towards efficient enzymatic saccharification of pretreated lignocellulose: Enzyme inhibition by lignin-derived phenolics and recent trends in mitigation strategies. Biotechnol Adv 2022; 61:108044. [PMID: 36152893 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2022.108044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Lignocellulosic biorefinery based on its sugar-platform has been considered as an efficient strategy to replace fossil fuel-based refinery. In the bioconversion process, pretreatment is an essential step to firstly open up lignocellulose cell wall structure and enhance the accessibility of carbohydrates to hydrolytic enzymes. However, various lignin and/or carbohydrates degradation products (e.g. phenolics, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural, furfural) also generated during pretreatment, which severely inhibit the following enzymatic hydrolysis and the downstream fermentation process. Among them, the lignin derived phenolics have been considered as the most inhibitory compounds and their inhibitory effects are highly dependent on the source of biomass and the type of pretreatment strategy. Although liquid-solid separation and subsequent washing can remove the lignin derived phenolics and other inhibitors, this is undesirable in the realistic industrial application where the whole slurry of pretreated biomass need to be directly used in the hydrolysis process. This review summarizes the phenolics formation mechanism for various commonly applied pretreatment methods and discusses the key factors that affect the inhibitory effect of phenolics on cellulose hydrolysis. In addition, the recent achievements on the rational design of inhibition mitigation strategies to boost cellulose hydrolysis for sugar-platform biorefinery are also introduced. This review also provides guidance for rational design detoxification strategies to facilitate whole slurry hydrolysis which helps to realize the industrialization of lignocellulose biorefinery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Zhai
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, 200 Xiaolingwei Street, Nanjing 210094, China
| | - Jianguang Hu
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, University of Calgary, Calgary T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Mingjie Jin
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, 200 Xiaolingwei Street, Nanjing 210094, China.
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Zheng T, Yang L, Ding M, Huang C, Yao J. Metal-organic framework promoting high-solids enzymatic hydrolysis of untreated corncob residues. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2022; 344:126163. [PMID: 34688859 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.126163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) could serve as efficient matrixes to immobilize cellulase because of their high stability and porous morphology. Herein, the Zr-based MOFs (UiO-66 and UiO-66-NH2) assisted 20 wt% high-solids hydrolysis of untreated corncob residues (CRs) at low enzyme loading was investigated. Glucan hydrolysis yields increased to 60.55% and 71.47% by separately adding 4 g/L UiO-66 and UiO-66-NH2 at 5 FPU/g-glucan cellulase dosage. The maximum hydrolysis yield reached 90.01% at 10 FPU/g-glucan in the presence of 4 g/L UiO-66-NH2. Analysis of free protein concentration and cellulase activity suggested that MOFs effectively increased cellulase catalytic activity and stability, thus boosted CRs enzymatic hydrolysis efficiency. Additionally, UiO-66-NH2 immobilization gave a high catalytic activity because of the abundant anchor sites of NH2 groups. This research presents the promising future of MOFs' application in lignocellulosic biomass bioconversion and other areas requiring immobilized enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianran Zheng
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Green Biomass-based Fuels and Chemicals, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Luan Yang
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Green Biomass-based Fuels and Chemicals, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Meili Ding
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Green Biomass-based Fuels and Chemicals, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Chen Huang
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Green Biomass-based Fuels and Chemicals, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; Institute of Chemical Industry of Forest Products, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Nanjing 210042, China
| | - Jianfeng Yao
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Green Biomass-based Fuels and Chemicals, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
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Cai X, Hu CH, Wang J, Zeng XH, Luo JX, Li M, Liu ZQ, Zheng YG. Efficient high-solids enzymatic hydrolysis of corncobs by an acidic pretreatment and a fed-batch feeding mode. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2021; 326:124768. [PMID: 33529982 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2021.124768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Corncob is an abundant and renewable resource that could be enzymatically hydrolyzed to fermentable sugar. A major impediment in corncob utilization is the low hydrolysis efficiency at high-solids content. This study attempted different pretreatment methods and fed-batch modes to achieve a 25% solids content hydrolysis with high yields. Natural corncobs were compared with acid-treated and acid-alkali-treated corncobs in terms of kinetics parameters, conversion rate and glucose titer. By feeding in batches, a "low amount and high frequency" mode (10%-3%-3%-3%-3%-3%, every 5 h) was confirmed to be optimal for a 25% high-solids hydrolysis system with a cellulase loading of 12 mg/g (7.3 FPU/g), resulted with an 84.4% glucose yield at 96 h. Our results demonstrated that combination of both optimized pretreatment method and fed-batch mode were a favored process model for high-solids hydrolysis of lignocellulose, boosting cellulose hydrolysis efficiency and sugar yields on an industrial scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Cai
- Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Synthesis of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, People's Republic of China; Zhejiang Huakang Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd, 18 Huagong Road, Huabu Town, Kaihua County, Quzhou, Zhejiang 324302, People's Republic of China
| | - Chang-Hui Hu
- Zhejiang Huakang Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd, 18 Huagong Road, Huabu Town, Kaihua County, Quzhou, Zhejiang 324302, People's Republic of China
| | - Jing Wang
- Zhejiang Huakang Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd, 18 Huagong Road, Huabu Town, Kaihua County, Quzhou, Zhejiang 324302, People's Republic of China
| | - Xu-Hao Zeng
- Zhejiang Huakang Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd, 18 Huagong Road, Huabu Town, Kaihua County, Quzhou, Zhejiang 324302, People's Republic of China
| | - Jia-Xing Luo
- Zhejiang Huakang Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd, 18 Huagong Road, Huabu Town, Kaihua County, Quzhou, Zhejiang 324302, People's Republic of China
| | - Mian Li
- Zhejiang Huakang Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd, 18 Huagong Road, Huabu Town, Kaihua County, Quzhou, Zhejiang 324302, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhi-Qiang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Synthesis of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yu-Guo Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Synthesis of Zhejiang Province, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, People's Republic of China
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Chen X, Zhai R, Li Y, Yuan X, Liu ZH, Jin M. Understanding the structural characteristics of water-soluble phenolic compounds from four pretreatments of corn stover and their inhibitory effects on enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2020; 13:44. [PMID: 32175010 PMCID: PMC7065323 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-020-01686-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND For bioethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass, phenolics derived from pretreatment have been generally considered as highly inhibitory towards enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation. As phenolics are produced from lignin degradation during pretreatment, it is likely that the pretreatment will exert a strong impact on the structure of phenolics, resulting in varied levels of inhibition of the bioconversion process. Despite the extensive studies on pretreatment, it remains unclear how pretreatment process affects the properties of generated phenolics and how the inhibitory effect of phenolics from different pretreatment varies on enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation. RESULTS In this study, the structural properties of phenolic compounds derived from four typical pretreatment [dilute acid (DA), liquid hot water pretreatment (LHW), ammonia fiber expansion (AFEX) and alkaline pretreatment (AL)] were characterized, and their effect on both enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation were evaluated. The inhibitory effect of phenolics on enzymatic hydrolysis followed the order: AFEX > LHW > DA > AL, while the inhibitory effect of phenolics on Zymomonas mobilis 8b strain fermentation followed the order: AL > LHW > DA > AFEX. Interestingly, this study revealed that phenolics derived from AFEX showed more severe inhibitory effect on enzymatic hydrolysis than those from the other pretreatments at the same phenolics concentrations (note: AFEX produced much less amount of phenolics compared to AL and DA), while they exhibited the lowest inhibitory effect on fermentation. The composition of phenolics from different pretreatments was analyzed and model phenolics were applied to explore the reason for this difference. The results suggested that the amide group in phenolics might account for this difference. CONCLUSIONS Pretreatment process greatly affects the properties of generated phenolics and the inhibitory effects of phenolics on enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation. This study provides new insight for further pretreatment modification and hydrolysate detoxification to minimize phenolics-caused inhibition and enhance the efficiency of enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiangxue Chen
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, 200 Xiaolingwei Street, Xuanwu District, Nanjing, 210094 China
| | - Rui Zhai
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, 200 Xiaolingwei Street, Xuanwu District, Nanjing, 210094 China
| | - Ying Li
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, 200 Xiaolingwei Street, Xuanwu District, Nanjing, 210094 China
| | - Xinchuan Yuan
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, 200 Xiaolingwei Street, Xuanwu District, Nanjing, 210094 China
| | - Zhi-Hua Liu
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843 USA
| | - Mingjie Jin
- School of Environmental and Biological Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, 200 Xiaolingwei Street, Xuanwu District, Nanjing, 210094 China
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Zhao C, Shao Q, Chundawat SPS. Recent advances on ammonia-based pretreatments of lignocellulosic biomass. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2020; 298:122446. [PMID: 31791921 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2019.122446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Revised: 11/15/2019] [Accepted: 11/16/2019] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Ammonia-based pretreatments have been extensively studied in the last decade as one of the leading pretreatment technologies for lignocellulose biorefining. Here, we discuss the key features and compare performances of several leading ammonia-based pretreatments (e.g., soaking in aqueous ammonia or SAA, ammonia recycled percolation or ARP, ammonia fiber expansion or AFEX, and extractive ammonia or EA). We provide detailed insight into the distinct physicochemical mechanisms employed during ammonia-based pretreatments and its impact on downstream bioprocesses (e.g., enzymatic saccharification); such as modification of cellulose crystallinity, lignin/hemicellulose structure, and other ultrastructural changes such as cell wall porosity. Lastly, a brief overview of process technoeconomics and environmental impacts are discussed, along with recommendations for future areas of research on ammonia-based pretreatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Zhao
- National Engineering Research Center for Wood-based Resource Utilization, School of Engineering, Zhejiang A&F University, Linan, Zhejiang 311300, People's Republic of China
| | - Qianjun Shao
- Faculty of Mechanical Engineering & Mechanics, Ningbo University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315211, People's Republic of China
| | - Shishir P S Chundawat
- Department of Chemical & Biochemical Engineering, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA.
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Water-soluble phenolic compounds produced from extractive ammonia pretreatment exerted binary inhibitory effects on yeast fermentation using synthetic hydrolysate. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0194012. [PMID: 29543873 PMCID: PMC5854342 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0194012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Biochemical conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to liquid fuels requires pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis of the biomass to produce fermentable sugars. Degradation products produced during thermochemical pretreatment, however, inhibit the microbes with regard to both ethanol yield and cell growth. In this work, we used synthetic hydrolysates (SynH) to study the inhibition of yeast fermentation by water-soluble components (WSC) isolated from lignin streams obtained after extractive ammonia pretreatment (EA). We found that SynH with 20g/L WSC mimics real hydrolysate in cell growth, sugar consumption and ethanol production. However, a long lag phase was observed in the first 48 h of fermentation of SynH, which is not observed during fermentation with the crude extraction mixture. Ethyl acetate extraction was conducted to separate phenolic compounds from other water-soluble components. These phenolic compounds play a key inhibitory role during ethanol fermentation. The most abundant compounds were identified by Liquid Chromatography followed by Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) and Gas Chromatography followed by Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), including coumaroyl amide, feruloyl amide and coumaroyl glycerol. Chemical genomics profiling was employed to fingerprint the gene deletion response of yeast to different groups of inhibitors in WSC and AFEX-Pretreated Corn Stover Hydrolysate (ACSH). The sensitive/resistant genes cluster patterns for different fermentation media revealed their similarities and differences with regard to degradation compounds.
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Biomass pretreatments capable of enabling lignin valorization in a biorefinery process. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2016; 38:39-46. [PMID: 26780496 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2015.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2015] [Revised: 12/28/2015] [Accepted: 12/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Recent techno-economic studies of proposed lignocellulosic biorefineries have concluded that creating value from lignin will assist realization of biomass utilization into valuable fuels, chemicals, and materials due to co-valorization and the new revenues beyond carbohydrates. The pretreatment step within a biorefinery process is essential for recovering carbohydrates, but different techniques and intensities have a variety of effects on lignin. Acidic and alkaline pretreatments have been shown to produce diverse lignins based on delignification chemistry. The valorization potential of pretreated lignin is affected by its chemical structure, which is known to degrade, including inter-lignin condensation under high-severity pretreatment. Co-valorization of lignin and carbohydrates will require dampening of pretreatment intensities to avoid such effects, in spite of tradeoffs in carbohydrate production.
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Gao D, Haarmeyer C, Balan V, Whitehead TA, Dale BE, Chundawat SPS. Lignin triggers irreversible cellulase loss during pretreated lignocellulosic biomass saccharification. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS 2014; 7:175. [PMID: 25530803 PMCID: PMC4272552 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-014-0175-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2014] [Accepted: 11/27/2014] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Non-productive binding of enzymes to lignin is thought to impede the saccharification efficiency of pretreated lignocellulosic biomass to fermentable sugars. Due to a lack of suitable analytical techniques that track binding of individual enzymes within complex protein mixtures and the difficulty in distinguishing the contribution of productive (binding to specific glycans) versus non-productive (binding to lignin) binding of cellulases to lignocellulose, there is currently a poor understanding of individual enzyme adsorption to lignin during the time course of pretreated biomass saccharification. RESULTS In this study, we have utilized an FPLC (fast protein liquid chromatography)-based methodology to quantify free Trichoderma reesei cellulases (namely CBH I, CBH II, and EG I) concentration within a complex hydrolyzate mixture during the varying time course of biomass saccharification. Three pretreated corn stover (CS) samples were included in this study: Ammonia Fiber Expansion(a) (AFEX™-CS), dilute acid (DA-CS), and ionic liquid (IL-CS) pretreatments. The relative fraction of bound individual cellulases varied depending not only on the pretreated biomass type (and lignin abundance) but also on the type of cellulase. Acid pretreated biomass had the highest levels of non-recoverable cellulases, while ionic liquid pretreated biomass had the highest overall cellulase recovery. CBH II has the lowest thermal stability among the three T. reesei cellulases tested. By preparing recombinant family 1 carbohydrate binding module (CBM) fusion proteins, we have shown that family 1 CBMs are highly implicated in the non-productive binding of full-length T. reesei cellulases to lignin. CONCLUSIONS Our findings aid in further understanding the complex mechanisms of non-productive binding of cellulases to pretreated lignocellulosic biomass. Developing optimized pretreatment processes with reduced or modified lignin content to minimize non-productive enzyme binding or engineering pretreatment-specific, low-lignin binding cellulases will improve enzyme specific activity, facilitate enzyme recycling, and thereby permit production of cheaper biofuels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dahai Gao
- />Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA
- />Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center (GLBRC), Michigan State University, 164 Food Safety and Toxicology Building, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA
- />Biomass Conversion Research Lab (BCRL), MBI Building, 3900 Collins Road, East Lansing, MI 48910 USA
| | - Carolyn Haarmeyer
- />Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA
| | - Venkatesh Balan
- />Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA
- />Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center (GLBRC), Michigan State University, 164 Food Safety and Toxicology Building, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA
- />Biomass Conversion Research Lab (BCRL), MBI Building, 3900 Collins Road, East Lansing, MI 48910 USA
| | - Timothy A Whitehead
- />Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA
- />Department of Biosystems and Agricultural Engineering, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA
| | - Bruce E Dale
- />Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA
- />Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center (GLBRC), Michigan State University, 164 Food Safety and Toxicology Building, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA
- />Biomass Conversion Research Lab (BCRL), MBI Building, 3900 Collins Road, East Lansing, MI 48910 USA
| | - Shishir PS Chundawat
- />Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA
- />Great Lakes Bioenergy Research Center (GLBRC), Michigan State University, 164 Food Safety and Toxicology Building, East Lansing, MI 48824 USA
- />Biomass Conversion Research Lab (BCRL), MBI Building, 3900 Collins Road, East Lansing, MI 48910 USA
- />Department of Chemical & Biochemical Engineering, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 98 Brett Road, Room C-150A, Piscataway, NJ 08854 USA
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