Sulfonated Sargassum horneri carbon as solid acid catalyst to produce biodiesel via esterification

Production of biodiesel via esterification of coffee waste-derived bio-oil using sulfonated catalysts

Catalytic esterification of acid-rich coffee waste-derived bio-oil was performed using sulfonated metal oxide catalysts (Al2O3, MgO, ZrO2, and TiO2) and ethanol to produce fatty acid alkyl esters. The potential of the sulfonated catalysts for esterification decreased in the following order: Ti-SO4 > Zr-SO4 > Al-SO4 > Mg-SO4. Particularly, Ti-SO4 and Zr-SO4 resulted in 91.2 % (peak area %) and 85.2 % esters, respectively. This is attributed to the contributions of well-dispersed Brønsted acid sites created by -SO3H functional groups, additional Lewis acid sites formed by Ti and Zr oxides, and their appropriate pore size. Compared with HCl and H3PO4, the use of H2SO4 for TiO2 treatment significantly enhanced ester formation. When using Ti-SO4, increasing the catalyst-to-feedstock ratio (1/2 ∼ 1/10) significantly increased the esters' selectivity (38.7 %∼94.7 %). Ethanol utilization caused a superior selectivity for esters than methanol, while the increasing temperature favored ester production. This study proposes an eco-friendly and practical method for biodiesel generation.

Application of waste derived magnetic acid-base bifunctional CoFe/biochar/CaO as an efficient catalyst for biodiesel production from waste cooking oil

The loss of active components, weak acid resistance, and low recover efficiency of common Ca-based catalysts limited its further development and application. In this study, to effectively produce biodiesel from waste cooking oil (WCO), a green and recyclable magnetic acid-base bifunctional CoFe/biochar/CaO catalyst was prepared from sargassum and river snail shell waste via hydrothermal method. The catalysts' structure and properties were investigated by X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), CO2/NH3 temperature programmed desorption (CO2/NH3 TPD), etc., The prepared catalyst mainly consisted of the carbon skeleton, CoFe alloy, and CaO. CoFe alloy provided catalyst's ferromagnetism for magnetic separation as well as acid sites for transesterification of WCO. Ca and other metal species with nanoscale (∼5.64 nm) were dispersively anchored on sargassum biochar surface, thereby leading to good catalytic activity (99.21% biodiesel yield) and stability (91.70% biodiesel yield after the 5th cycle). In addition, response surface methodology-Box-Behnken design (RSM-BBD) revealed the optimal operational conditions were 16:1 methanol/oil molar ratio, 3 wt% catalyst dosage, 73 °C for 157 min. The maximum biodiesel yield predicted value was 98.29% and the experimental value was 99.21%, indicating good satisfaction of the established model. Moreover, the quality of WCO biodiesel met the ASTM D6751 standards. This study benefits magnetic waste-derived acid-base bifunctional catalysts for the disposal of WCO towards sustainable biodiesel production.

Insights into Preparation Methods and Functions of Carbon-Based Solid Acids

With the growing emphasis on green chemistry and the ecological environment, researchers are increasingly paying attention to greening materials through the use of carbon-based solid acids. The diverse characteristics of carbon-based solid acids can be produced through different preparation conditions and modification methods. This paper presents a comprehensive summary of the current research progress on carbon-based solid acids, encompassing common carbonization methods, such as one-step, two-step, hydrothermal, and template methods. The composition of carbon source material may be the main factor affecting its carbonization method and carbonization temperature. Additionally, acidification types including sulfonating agent, phosphoric acid, heteropoly acid, and nitric acid are explored. Furthermore, the functions of carbon-based solid acids in esterification, hydrolysis, condensation, and alkylation are thoroughly analyzed. This study concludes by addressing the existing drawbacks and outlining potential future development prospects for carbon-based solid acids in the context of their important role in sustainable chemistry and environmental preservation.

H2SO4 assisted hydrothermal conversion of biomass with solid acid catalysis to produce aviation fuel precursors

With hydrothermal reaction, lignocellulosic biomass can be efficiently converted into furfural (FF) and levulinic acid (LA), both of which are key platform compounds that can be used for the subsequent preparation of aviation fuels. In order to reduce the acid concentration in traditional hydrolysis and provide a reaction system with good catalytic activity, we propose a biomass conversion route as dilute acid hydrolysis coupled with solid acid catalysis. Firstly, at different temperatures, the hemicellulose and cellulose in corn stover were step-hydrolyzed by sulfuric acid solution with a concentration of 0.9 wt. % to produce xylose and glucose, with conversion reaching 100% and 97.3%, respectively. Subsequently, a new resin-derived carbon-based solid acid catalyst was used to catalyze the aforementioned saccharide solutions to obtain FF with yield of 68.7 mol % and LA of 70.3 mol %, respectively. This work provides a promising approach for the efficient production of bio-aviation fuel precursors.

Advances in biomass derived low-cost carbon catalyst for biodiesel production: preparation methods, reaction conditions, and mechanisms

Biodiesel is a less hazardous, environmentally friendly biofuel that has been extensively investigated in modern years to ensure that we lessen our dependency on fossil fuels and mitigate climate change. While fossil fuel substitutes like biodiesel may help transition to a less polluted world, industrial-scale manufacturing still relies highly on chemical catalysis. However, heterogeneous solid catalysts result in less activity for biodiesel production due to their deactivation effects, porosity, surface area, material stability, and lower reactivity under moderate conditions. The "sulfonated carbons" are metal-free solid protonic acids distinguished by their distinctive carbon structure and Brønsted acidity (H0 = 8-11). Heterogeneous sulfonated catalysts derived from waste biomass were a significant focus of the most advanced biodiesel processing techniques for simple and low-cost manufacturing processes. This study discusses the advantages and disadvantages of various catalysts, biomass sources and properties, synthesis of catalysts, and factors influencing the insertion of active sulfonic sites on biomass surfaces. Additionally, transesterification and esterification reaction mechanisms and kinetics are discussed. At last, future directions are provided for young, dynamic researchers.

Microwave-assisted biodiesel production using -SO3H functionalized heterogeneous catalyst derived from a lignin-rich biomass

The synthesis of biodiesel from renewable resources has immense potential as a sustainable and cost-effective energy alternative. In this work, a reusable -SO₃H functionalized heterogeneous catalyst that has a total acid density of 2.06 mmol/g was prepared from walnut (Juglans regia) shell powder by low-temperature hydrothermal carbonization (WNS-SO₃H). Walnut shell (WNS) contains more lignin (50.3%), which shows great resistance toward moisture. The prepared catalyst was employed for the effective conversion of oleic acid to methyl oleate by a microwave-assisted esterification reaction. The EDS analysis revealed the significant presence of sulfur (4.76 wt%), oxygen (51.24 wt%), and carbon (44 wt%) content. The results of the XPS analysis confirm the bonding of C-S, C-C, C=C, C-O, and C=O. Meanwhile, the presence of -SO₃H (the responsible factor for the esterification of oleic acid) was confirmed by FTIR analysis. Under the optimized conditions (9 wt% catalyst loading, 1:16 oleic acid to methanol molar ratio, 60 min reaction time, and 85 °C temperature), the conversion of oleic acid to biodiesel was found to be 99.01 ± 0.3%. The obtained methyl oleate was characterized by employing ¹³C and ¹H nuclear magnetic spectroscopy. The conversion yield and chemical composition of methyl oleate were confirmed by gas chromatography analysis. In conclusion, it can be a sustainable catalyst because the catalyst preparation controls the agro-waste, a great conversion is achieved due to the high lignin content, and the catalyst was reusable for five effective reaction cycles.

Synthesis of hexyl butyrate (apple and citrus aroma) by Candida rugosa lipase immobilized on Diaion HP-20 using the Box-Behnken design

This study aims at the synthesis of hexyl butyrate by Candida rugosa lipase (CRL) immobilized on Diaion HP 20. The lipase load used was 28.7 ± 2.1 mg/g (mg of lipase/g of support), whose hydrolytic activity was 132.0 ± 2.5 U/g. To obtain the maximum production of hexyl butyrate, the Box-Behnken design statistical planning was used, having as independent variables; biocatalyst concentration, temperature and acid:alcohol molar ratio and ester conversion as a dependent variable at 60, 180 and 480 min. For 60 min, 90.8% conversion was obtained at 47.25 ºC, 1:1.4 molar ratio and 17.65% of biocatalyst; 180 min, 94.5% conversion at 59.5 ºC, 1:2 molar ratio and 15.8% biocatalyst; 480 min, 95.01% conversion at 47.0 ºC, 1:2 molar ratio and 16.9% biocatalyst. CRL-Diaion HP 20 retained 60% of its initial activity after ten cycles of reactions showing potential for industrial use. The ester produced was identified by gas chromatography analyses.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10068-022-01200-1.

Microalgal polyunsaturated fatty acids: Hotspots and production techniques

Algae play a crucial role in the earth’s primary productivity by producing not only oxygen but also a variety of high-value nutrients. One such nutrient is polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), which are accumulated in many algae and can be consumed by animals through the food chain and eventually by humans. Omega-3 and omega-6 PUFAs are essential nutrients for human and animal health. However, compared with plants and aquatic sourced PUFA, the production of PUFA-rich oil from microalgae is still in the early stages of exploration. This study has collected recent reports on algae-based PUFA production and analyzed related research hotspots and directions, including algae cultivation, lipids extraction, lipids purification, and PUFA enrichment processes. The entire technological process for the extraction, purification and enrichment of PUFA oils from algae is systemically summarized in this review, providing important guidance and technical reference for scientific research and industrialization of algae-based PUFA production.

Spotlighting of the role of catalysis for biomass conversion to green fuels towards a sustainable environment: Latest innovation avenues, insights, challenges, and future perspectives

Recently, extensive resources were dedicated to studying how to use catalysis to convert biomass into environmentally friendly fuels. Problems with this technology include the processing of lignocellulosic sources and the development/optimization of novel porous materials as efficient monofunctional and bifunctional catalysts for biomass fuel production. This paper reviews recent advancements in catalysts procedures. Besides, it offers assessments of the methods used in catalytic biomass pyrolysis. Understanding the catalytic conversion process of lignocellulosic biomass into bio-oil remains a key research challenge in biomass catalytic pyrolysis.

Continuous biodiesel production from acidic oil using a combination of acidic and alkaline composite catalytic membranes in flow-through membrane reactors

A comprehensive process of esterification for online separation transesterification for biodiesel production, with a yield of up to 97.52%.

Evaluation of the effect of Lactiplantibacillus pentosus SN001 fermentation on arsenic accumulation and antihypertensive effect of Sargassum horneri in vivo

Sargassum horneri contains water-soluble polysaccharides, which have antihypertensive effects, and arsenic, which is harmful to the human body. Boiling and other treatments are effective in removing arsenic; however, water-soluble polysaccharides are lost during processing. Therefore, a method to remove arsenic and further increase its antihypertensive effect is required. To this end, we investigated fermentation with Lactiplantibacillus pentosus SN001 in this study. Boiled and fermented S. horneri were administered to spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR), and blood pressure and arsenic accumulation in organs were observed to simultaneously examine the effects of fermentation on hypertension and arsenic accumulation. The ACE (angiotensin-converting enzyme) inhibition rate, an indicator of antihypertensive effects, showed a maximum at 4 days of fermentation. Consecutive dosing studies using S. horneri, boiled S. horneri, and fermented boiled S. horneri in SHR were conducted. Although the boiled group showed high blood pressure values, the fermented boiled group showed lower blood pressure values than the boiled cohort. The amount of arsenic accumulated in the liver, kidney, and spleen of rats was significantly lower in the boiled and fermented boiled groups than that in the S. horneri group. This confirmed the arsenic removal effect of boiling pretreatment and the in vivo safety of fermented boiled S. horneri. These results suggest that fermentation of arsenic-free S. horneri with L. pentosus SN001 can enhance its antihypertensive effect in vivo. This is the first study to simultaneously examine the antihypertensive effect of fermentation of S. horneri and its effect on the arsenic accumulation in vivo.

Activity of a Sulfonated Carbon-Based Catalyst Derived from Organosolv Lignin toward Esterification of Stearic Acid under Near-Critical Alcohol Conditions

In this study, an environmentally benign carbon-based catalyst derived from extracted bagasse lignin (EL) was successfully synthesized by solvothermal carbonization and sulfonation with methane sulfonic acid (MSA). Interestingly, the results indicated that the use of MSA as a sulfonation agent made a catalyst with higher thermal stability than conventional sulfuric acid. Thus, in comparison to the catalyst prepared by using sulfuric acid, the catalyst prepared by using MSA (EL-MSA) exhibited higher catalytic activity in the esterification of stearic acid under near-critical methanol conditions. Under optimum conditions (260 °C for 5 min, a 9:1 methanol-to-stearic-acid molar ratio, 5 wt % catalyst loading, and 10% v/v toluene), the esterification over the EL-MSA catalyst promoted a 91.1% methyl stearate yield. Moreover, the results also revealed that the high thermal stability of the EL-MSA catalyst not only affects its great catalytic activity, but it also prevents damage to the porous structure and decomposition of acidic surface oxygen-containing functional groups. It contributes to the excellent reusability of the catalyst. After the fifth run, a high yield of 82.8% was obtained. The effect of alcohol type on the catalyst performance was also studied. It was found that the EL-MSA catalyst also presented good performance toward esterification with ethanol and propanol, from which ethyl stearate and propyl stearate with a more than 80% ester yield can be achieved.

Glycerol-Based Retrievable Heterogeneous Catalysts for Single-Pot Esterification of Palm Fatty Acid Distillate to Biodiesel

The by-product of the previous transesterification, glycerol was utilised as an acid catalyst precursor for biodiesel production. The crude glycerol was treated through the sulfonation method with sulfuric acid and chlorosulfonic acid in a reflux batch reactor giving solid glycerol-SO₃H and glycerol-ClSO₃H, respectively. The synthesised acidic glycerol catalysts were characterised by various analytical techniques such as thermalgravimetric analyser (TGA), infrared spectroscopy, surface properties adsorption-desorption by nitrogen gas, ammonia-temperature programmed desorption (NH₃-TPD), X-ray diffraction spectroscopy (XRD), elemental composition analysis by energy dispersive spectrometer (EDX) and surface micrographic morphologies by field emission electron microscope (FESEM). Both glycerol-SO₃H and glycerol-ClSO₃H samples exhibited mesoporous structures with a low surface area of 8.85 mm²/g and 4.71 mm²/g, respectively, supported by the microscopic image of blockage pores. However, the acidity strength for both catalysts was recorded at 3.43 mmol/g and 3.96 mmol/g, which is sufficient for catalysing PFAD biodiesel at the highest yield. The catalytic esterification was optimised at 96.7% and 98.2% with 3 wt.% of catalyst loading, 18:1 of methanol-PFAD molar ratio, 120 °C, and 4 h of reaction. Catalyst reusability was sustained up to 3 reaction cycles due to catalyst deactivation, and the insight investigation of spent catalysts was also performed.

Preparation and Characterization of Alkaline and Acidic Heterogeneous Carbon-Based Catalysts and Their Application in Vegetable Oil Transesterification to Obtain Biodiesel

This paper reports the preparation, evaluation, and comparison of alkaline and acidic heterogeneous carbon-based catalysts in the transesterification of safflower oil with methanol to obtain biodiesel. These catalysts were obtained from the pyrolysis of flamboyant pods and their functionalization and activation with potassium hydroxide, citric acid, tartaric acid, sulfuric acid, and calcium nitrate. Different routes for the preparation of these catalysts were tested and analyzed where the FAME formation was the target variable to be improved. Results showed that the catalyst prepared with potassium hydroxide and calcium nitrate achieved the highest FAME formation (i.e., 95%) and outperformed the catalysts prepared with calcium nitrate and other acids even after four regeneration-reaction cycles. The best properties of an alkaline catalyst could be associated with its specific surface area and contents of potassium and calcium moieties, which were higher than those observed for acidic catalysts. Transesterification rates for biodiesel production were better estimated with the pseudo-order kinetic model, which ranged from 0.0004 to 0.038 L/mol⋅min for alkaline and acidic catalysts.

Preparation of Activated Carbon-Based Solid Sulfonic Acid and Its Catalytic Performance in Biodiesel Preparation

With activated carbon as raw material, AC-Ph-SO₃H was prepared after oxidation with nitric acid, modification with halogenated benzene and sulfonation with concentrated sulfuric acid. After modified by 10% bromobenzene with toluene as a solvent for 5 h, followed sulfonation with concentrated sulfuric acid at 150°C, the -SO₃H content of prepared AC-Ph-SO₃H was 0.64 mmol/g. Acid content test, infrared spectroscopy and Raman spectroscopy detection proved that the surface of AC-Ph-SO₃H was successfully grafted with -SO₃H group. When used as a catalyst for the methylation of palmitate acid, the catalytic performance of AC-Ph-SO₃H was explored. When the reaction time was 6 h, the amount of catalyst acid accounted for 2.5 wt% of palmitic acid, and the molar ratio of methanol/palmitic acid was 40, the esterification rate of palmitic acid was 95.2% and the yield of methyl palmitate was 94.2%, which was much better than those of its precursors AC, AC-O, and AC-Ph (both about 4.5%). AC-Ph-SO₃H exhibited certain stability in the esterification reaction system and the conversion rate of palmitic acid was still above 80% after three reuses.

Prospects of Catalysis for Process Sustainability of Eco-Green Biodiesel Synthesis via Transesterification: A State-Of-The-Art Review

Environmental pollution caused by conventional petro-diesel initiates at time of crude oil extraction and continues until its consumption. The resulting emission of poisonous gases during the combustion of petroleum-based fuel has worsened the greenhouse effect and global warming. Moreover, exhaustion of finite fossil fuels due to extensive exploitation has made the search for renewable resources indispensable. In light of this, biodiesel is a best possible substitute for the regular petro-diesel as it is eco-friendly, renewable, and economically viable. For effective biodiesel synthesis, the selection of potential feedstock and choice of efficient catalyst is the most important criteria. The main objective of this bibliographical review is to highlight vital role of different catalytic systems acting on variable feedstock and diverse methods for catalysis of biodiesel synthesis reactions. This paper further explores the effects of optimized reaction parameters, modification in chemical compositions, reaction operating parameters, mechanism and methodologies for catalysts preparation, stability enhancement, recovery, and reusability with the maximum optimum activity of catalysts. In future, the development of well-planned incentive structures is necessary for systematic progression of biodiesel process. Besides this, the selection of accessible and amended approaches for synthesis and utilization of specific potential catalysts will ensure the sustainability of eco-green biodiesel.

A Highly Effective Biomass-Derived Solid Acid Catalyst for Biodiesel Synthesis Through Esterification

Efficient valorization of renewable liquid biomass for biodiesel production using the desirable biomass-based catalysts is being deemed to be an environmentally friendly process. Herein, a highly active biomass-based solid acid catalyst (SiO₂@Cs-SO₃H) with renewable chitosan as raw material through sulfonation procedure under the relatively mild condition was successfully manufactured. The SiO₂@Cs-SO₃H catalyst was systematically characterized, especially with a large specific surface area (21.82 m²/g) and acidity (3.47 mmol/g). The catalytic activity of SiO₂@Cs-SO₃H was evaluated by esterification of oleic acid (OA) and methanol for biodiesel production. The best biodiesel yield was acquired by Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The optimized reaction conditions were temperature of 92°C, time of 4.1 h, catalyst dosage of 6.8 wt%, and methanol to OA molar ratio of 31.4, respectively. In this case, the optimal experimental biodiesel yield was found to be 98.2%, which was close to that of the predicted value of 98.4%, indicating the good reliability of RSM employed in this study. Furthermore, SiO₂@Cs-SO₃H also exhibited good reusability in terms of five consecutive recycles with 87.0% biodiesel yield. As such, SiO₂@Cs-SO₃H can be considered and used as a bio-based sustainable catalyst of high-efficiency for biodiesel production.

Phyllosilicate derived catalysts for efficient conversion of lignocellulosic derived biomass to biodiesel: A review

The efforts have been made to review phyllosilicate derived (clay-based) heterogeneous catalysts for biodiesel production via lignocellulose derived feedstocks. These catalysts have many practical and potential applications in green catalysis. Phyllosilicate derived heterogeneous catalysts (modified via any of these approaches like acid activated clays, ion exchanged clays and layered double hydroxides) exhibits excellent catalytic activity for producing cost effective and high yield biodiesel. The combination of different protocols (intercalated catalysts, ion exchanged catalysts, acidic activated clay catalysts, clay-supported catalysts, composites and hybrids, pillared interlayer clay catalysts, and hierarchically structured catalysts) was implemented so as to achieve the synergetic effects (acidic-basic) in resultant material (catalyst) for efficient conversion of lignocellulose derived feedstock (non-edible oils) to biodiesel. Utilisation of these Phyllosilicate derived catalysts will pave path for future researchers to investigate the cost-effective, accessible and improved approaches in synthesising novel catalysts that could be used for converting lignocellulosic biomass to eco-friendly biodiesel.

Heterogeneous base catalysts: Synthesis and application for biodiesel production - A review

Recently, much research has been carried out to find a suitable catalyst for the transesterification process during biodiesel production where heterogeneous catalysts play a crucial role. As homogenous catalysts present drawbacks such as slow reaction rate, high-cost due to the use of food grade oils, problems associated with separation process, and environmental pollution, heterogenous catalysts are more preferred. Animal shells and bones are the biowastes suitably calcined for the synthesis of heterogenous base catalyst. The catalysts synthesized using organic wastes are environmentally friendly, and cost-effective. The present review is dedicated to synthesis of heterogeneous basic catalysts from the natural resources or biowastes in biodiesel production through transesterification of oils. Use of calcined catalysts for converting potential feedstocks (vegetable oils and animal fat) into biodiesel/FAME is effective and safe, and the yield could be improved over 98%. There is a vast scope for biowaste-derived catalysts in green production of biofuel.