Bioconversion of oily waste to polyhydroxyalkanoates: Sustainable technology with circular bioeconomy approach and multidimensional impacts

Polyhydroxyalkanoates production from laboratory to industrial scale: A review

Environmental issues related to fossil-based plastics are getting the attention of the media and legislative authorities, addressing the need to improve the plastics' design, collection, and circular economy. In this regard, polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) represent a promising alternative to the conventional polymers, given their biological origin, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. To date, their commercialization covers only a little percentage of the biodegradable plastic application, mainly due to their high cost. However, new production strategies are being investigated and patented, enhancing the PHA market competitiveness. This review tries to fill the gap about the critical investigation on innovative and up-to-date process strategies in PHA production field, deeply evaluating them from a plant-engineering point of view. Several aspects are considered regarding the reduction of the production costs and the increase in the overall PHA productivity and recovery. Among them, the feeding of pre-treated carbon sources derived from food and agro-industrial wastes, the use of mixed microbial cultures as convenient substitutes to the pure ones, and optimized downstream processes are widely discussed. The overlook of the topic is completed by evaluating the innovative technologies existing at pilot and industrial scale, able to achieve improved production yields. Finally, PHA economic and market current conditions are investigated.

Innovations in poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) and nanocomposites for sustainable food packaging via biochemical biorefinery platforms: A comprehensive review

The substantial build-up of non-biodegradable plastic waste from packaging sector not only poses severe environmental threats but also hastens the depletion of natural petroleum-based resources. Presently, poly (3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxy valerate) (PHBV), received enormous attention as ideal alternatives for such traditional petroleum-derived plastics based on their biocompatibility and superior mechanical properties. However, high cost of such copolymer, due to expensive nature of feedstock, inefficient microbial processes and unfavorable downstream processing strategies restricts its large-scale commercial feasibility in the packaging sector. This review explores merits and challenges associated with using potent agricultural and industrial waste biomasses as sustainable feedstocks alongside improved fermentation and downstream processing strategies for the biopolymer in terms of biorefinery concept. Despite PHBV's attractive properties, its inherent shortcomings like weak thermal stability, poor mechanical properties, processability difficulty, substantial hydrophobicity and comparatively higher water vapor permeability (WVP) demand the development of its composites based on the application. Based on this fact, the review assessed properties and potential applications of PHBV-based composite materials having natural raw materials, nanomaterials and synthetic biodegradable polymers. Besides, the review also enlightens sustainability, future prospects, and challenges associated with PHBV-based composites in the field of food packaging while considering insights about economic evaluation and life cycle assessment.

Advances in Microbial Biotechnology for Sustainable Alternatives to Petroleum-Based Plastics: A Comprehensive Review of Polyhydroxyalkanoate Production

The industrial production of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) faces several limitations that hinder their competitiveness against traditional plastics, mainly due to high production costs and complex recovery processes. Innovations in microbial biotechnology offer promising solutions to overcome these challenges. The modification of the biosynthetic pathways is one of the main tactics; allowing for direct carbon flux toward PHA formation, increasing polymer accumulation and improving polymer properties. Additionally, techniques have been implemented to expand the range of renewable substrates used in PHA production. These feedstocks are inexpensive and plentiful but require costly and energy-intensive pretreatment. By removing the need for pretreatment and enabling the direct use of these raw materials, microbial biotechnology aims to reduce production costs. Furthermore, improving downstream processes to facilitate the separation of biomass from culture broth and the recovery of PHAs is critical. Genetic modifications that alter cell morphology and allow PHA secretion directly into the culture medium simplify the extraction and purification process, significantly reducing operating costs. These advances in microbial biotechnology not only enhance the efficient and sustainable production of PHAs, but also position these biopolymers as a viable and competitive alternative to petroleum-based plastics, contributing to a circular economy and reducing the dependence on fossil resources.

Polyhydroxyalkanoates for Sustainable Aquaculture: A Review of Recent Advancements, Challenges, and Future Directions

Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) are biodegradable biopolymers produced by prokaryotic microbes, which, at the same time, can be applied as single-cell proteins (SCPs), growing on renewable waste-derived substrates. These PHA polymers have gained increasing attention as a sustainable alternative to conventional plastics. One promising application of PHA and PHA-rich SCPs lies within the aquaculture food industry, where they hold potential as feed additives, biocontrol agents against diseases, and immunostimulants. Nevertheless, the cost of PHA production and application remains high, partly due to expensive substrates for cultivating PHA-accumulating SCPs, costly sterilization, energy-intensive SCPs harvesting techniques, and toxic PHA extraction and purification processes. This review summarizes the current state of PHA production and its application in aquaculture. The structure and classification of PHA, microbial sources, cultivation substrates, biosynthesis pathways, and the production challenges and solutions are discussed. Next, the potential of PHA application in aquaculture is explored, focusing on aquaculture challenges, common and innovative PHA-integrated farming practices, and PHA mechanisms in inhibiting pathogens, enhancing the immune system, and improving growth and gut health of various aquatic species. Finally, challenges and future research needs for PHA production and application in aquaculture are identified. Overall, this review paper provides a comprehensive overview of the potential of PHA in aquaculture and highlights the need for further research in this area.

Reprocessing of side-streams towards obtaining valuable bacterial metabolites

Every year, all over the world, the industry generates huge amounts of residues. Side-streams are most often used as feed, landfilled, incinerated, or discharged into sewage. These disposal methods are far from perfect. Taking into account the composition of the side-streams, it seems that they should be used as raw materials for further processing, in accordance with the zero-waste policy and sustainable development. The article describes the latest achievements in biotechnology in the context of bacterial reprocessing of residues with the simultaneous acquisition of their metabolites. The article focuses on four metabolites - bacterial cellulose, propionic acid, vitamin B12 and PHAs. Taking into account global trends (e.g. food, packaging, medicine), it seems that in the near future there will be a sharp increase in demand for this type of compounds. In order for their production to be profitable and commercialised, cheap methods of its obtaining must be developed. The article, in addition to obtaining these bacterial metabolites from side-streams, also discusses e.g. factors affecting their production, metabolic pathways and potential and current applications. The presented chapters provide a complete overview of the current knowledge on above metabolites, which can be helpful for the academic and scientific communities and the several industries. KEY POINTS: • The industry generates millions of tons of organic side-streams each year. • Generated residues burden the natural environment. • A good and cost-effective method of side-streams management seems to be biotechnology - reprocessing with the use of bacteria. • Biotechnological disposal of side-streams gives the opportunity to obtain valuable compounds in cheaper ways: BC, PA, vitmain B12, PHAs.

Upgrading cardoon biomass into Polyhydroxybutyrate based blends: A holistic approach for the synthesis of biopolymers and additives

Cardoon, Cynara cardunculus L. represents a biorefinery crop with a great potential in the bioplastic field. This work investigates the valorization of different cardoon components into high added value products, finally recombined into novel upgraded bioplastics. Bioprocesses for Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and medium-chain-length Polyhydroxyalkanoates (mcl-PHA) production were set up starting from root inulin and seed oil respectively, highlighting the effect of process conditions on polymer properties. The ternary blend, in which the PHB polymer matrix was added with mcl-PHA and epoxidized cardoon oil, evidenced a synergic effect of both additives in modulating PHB structural and thermal properties, promoted by the physical interaction occurring among the components. This proof-of concept frames the paper in the holistic approach of circular economy applied to bioplastic production.

The role of restaurant wastewater for producing bioenergy towards a circular bioeconomy: A review on composition, environmental impacts, and sustainable integrated management

Population inflation has led to the unprecedented increase in urbanization, thus causing negative impacts on environmental sustainability. Recently, there is an upsurge in the number of restaurants due to the changing lifestyles of the people round the globe. For instance, there were 167,490 food and beverage establishments in 2015, representing an annual growth rate of 5.1% since 2010 in Malaysia. The rapid growth of restaurants has implicated a negative impact due to the generation of highly polluted restaurant wastewater (RWW). RWW is mainly generated during the cooking, washing, and cleaning operations. RWW typically contain fat, oil, and grease (FOG) resulting from residues of meat, deep-fried food, baked items and butter, and has caused serious blockages of sewer due to clogging and eventually sewage backup. This has increased the required frequency of cleaning and sanitary sewer overflows (SSOs). Results from the previous studies have shown that FOG can be treated using physical, chemical, and biological processes. Different technologies have been applied for the treatment of FOG and other pollutants (COD, BOD, SS and NH₄-N) present in RWW. Therefore, this review aims to provide an in-depth understanding of the characteristics of RWW, chemical and physical characteristics of FOG with the mechanism of its formation and utilization for biocomposites, biogas and biodiesel productions for circular bioeconomy. Besides, this review has discussed the potential treatment technologies comprehensively for RWW which is currently remain understudied. Integrated sustainable management of FOG with technoeconomic analysis of bioproducts, sustainable management with international initiatives and previous studies are also summarized. Hence, this review aims towards providing better alternatives in managing RWW at sources, including its treatment and potential of its biorefinery, therefore eventually contributing towards environmental sustainability.

Evaluation of different nutrient limitation strategies for the efficient production of poly(hydroxybutyrate-co-hydroxyvalerate) from waste frying oil and propionic acid in high cell density fermentations of Cupriavidus necator H16

Because of its application potential and biodegradability, poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate;PHBV), a member of the polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) biopolymer family, is one of the most extensively studied PHA. High PHBV productivity with a significant amount of hydroxyvalerate (HV) content is very appealing for commercial scale production. The goal of this study was to investigate the efficiency of various defined limitation strategies, namely nitrogen, phosphorus, and oxygen-limitation, for high yield PHBV production by Cupriavidus necator H16 with increased HV unit using waste frying vegetable oil (WFO) and propionic acid (PA) in a high cell density culture (5 L bioreactor). With optimized WFO and PA feeding, highest PHBV harvest (121.7 ± 2.59 g/L; HV 13.9 ± 0.44% (w/w)) and volumetric productivity (2.03 ± 0.04 gPHBV/L·h) were obtained in oxygen-limited operation, while highest HV content (19.8 ± 0.28 wt%) and yield coefficient (0.43 ± 0.017 gHV/gPA) were observed during phosphorus-limited cultivation. Although nitrogen limitation is widely applied in the production of PHA, nitrogen-limited cultivation had the lowest cell dry matter, PHBV production, volumetric productivity, oil-to-HB and PA-to-HV yield coefficients for the given conditions. The results of the present study demonstrate the highest PHBV yield together with the highest HV content using WFO as main carbon source and PA as the HV precursor ever reported in the literature.

A Review on Enhancing Cupriavidus necator Fermentation for Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) Production From Low-Cost Carbon Sources

In the context of a circular economy, bioplastic production using biodegradable materials such as poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) has been proposed as a promising solution to fundamentally solve the disposal issue of plastic waste. PHB production techniques through fermentation of PHB-accumulating microbes such as Cupriavidus necator have been revolutionized over the past several years with the development of new strategies such as metabolic engineering. This review comprehensively summarizes the latest PHB production technologies via Cupriavidus necator fermentation. The mechanism of the biosynthesis pathway for PHB production was first assessed. PHB production efficiencies of common carbon sources, including food waste, lignocellulosic materials, glycerol, and carbon dioxide, were then summarized and critically analyzed. The key findings in enhancing strategies for PHB production in recent years, including pre-treatment methods, nutrient limitations, feeding optimization strategies, and metabolism engineering strategies, were summarized. Furthermore, technical challenges and future prospects of strategies for enhanced production efficiencies of PHB were also highlighted. Based on the overview of the current enhancing technologies, more pilot-scale and larger-scale tests are essential for future implementation of enhancing strategies in full-scale biogas plants. Critical analyses of various enhancing strategies would facilitate the establishment of more sustainable microbial fermentation systems for better waste management and greater efficiency of PHB production.

A review on polyhydroxyalkanoate production from agricultural waste Biomass: Development, Advances, circular Approach, and challenges

Polyhydroxyalkanoates are biopolymers produced by microbial fermentation. They have excellent biodegradability and biocompatibility, which are regarded as promising substitutes for traditional plastics in various production and application fields. This review details the research progress in PHA production from lignocellulosic crop residues, lipid-type agricultural wastes, and other agro-industrial wastes such as molasses and whey. The effective use of agricultural waste can further reduce the cost of PHA production while avoiding competition between industrial production and food. The latest information on fermentation parameter optimization, fermentation strategies, kinetic studies, and circular approach has also been discussed. This review aims to analyze the crucial process of the PHA production from agricultural wastes to provide support and reference for further scale-up and industrial production.

Biopolymer poly-hydroxyalkanoates (PHA) production from apple industrial waste residues: A review

Apple pomace, the residue which is left out after processing of apple serves as a potential carbon source for the production of biopolymer, PHA (poly-hydroxyalkanoates). It is rich in carbohydrates, fibers and polyphenols. Utilization of these waste resources has dual societal benefit-waste management and conversion of waste to an eco-friendly biopolymer. This will lower the overall economics of the process. A major limitation for the commercialization of biopolymer in comparison with petroleum derived polymer is the high cost. This article gives an overview of valorization of apple pomace for the production of biopolymer, various strategies adopted, limitations as well as future perspectives.

Available Pathways for Operationalizing Circular Economy into the Olive Oil Supply Chain: Mapping Evidence from a Scoping Literature Review

Circular economy (CE) is increasingly seen as a promising paradigm for transitioning agri-food systems towards more sustainable models of production and consumption, enabling virtuous and regenerative biological metabolisms based on strategies of eco-efficiency and eco-effectiveness. This contribution seeks to provide a theoretical and empirical framework for operationalizing the CE principles into the olive oil supply chain, that plays a central role in the agroecological systems of the Mediterranean region. A scoping literature review has been conducted in order to identify the available pathways so far explored by scholars for reshaping the olive oil supply chain from a circular perspective. The analyzed literature has been charted on the base of the circular pathway examined, and according to the supply chain subsystem(s) to which it refers. Results are discussed highlighting the main issues, the technology readiness level of the available pathways, the prevailing approaches and knowledge gaps. A synthetic evidence map is provided, framing visually the scrutinized pathways into the Ellen MacArthur Foundation’s CE ‘butterfly’ graph. The work is intended to be a valuable baseline for inquiring how circularity can be advanced in the specific supply chain of olive oil, and which are the strategic opportunities, as well as the barriers to overcome, in order to foster the transition.

Development and Characterization of Electrospun Biopapers of Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) Derived from Cheese Whey with Varying 3-Hydroxyvalerate Contents

In the present study, three different newly developed copolymers of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) with 20, 40, and 60 mol % contents in 3-hydroxyvalerate (3HV) were produced by the biotechnological process of mixed microbial cultures (MMCs) using cheese whey (CW), a by-product from the dairy industry, as feedstock. The CW-derived PHBV copolyesters were first purified and then processed by solution electrospinning, yielding fibers of approximately 2 μm in cross-section in all cases. The resultant electrospun PHBV mats were, thereafter, post-processed by annealing at different temperatures, below their maximum of melting, selected according to their 3HV content in order to obtain continuous films based on coalesced fibers, so-called biopapers. The resultant PHBV films were characterized in terms of their morphology, crystallinity, and mechanical and barrier properties to assess their potential application in food packaging. The CW-derived PHBV biopapers showed high contact transparency but a slightly yellow color. The fibers of the 20 mol % 3HV copolymer were seen to contain mostly poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) crystals, the fibers of the 40 mol % 3HV copolymer a mixture of PHB and poly(3-hydroxyvalerate) (PHV) crystals and lowest crystallinity, and the fibers of the 60 mol % 3HV sample were mostly made of PHV crystals. To understand the interfiber coalesce process undergone by the materials during annealing, the crystalline morphology was also assessed by variable-temperature both combined small-angle and wide-angle X-ray scattering synchrotron and Fourier transform infrared experiments. From these experiments and, different from previously reported biopapers with lower 3HV contents, all samples were inferred to have a surface energy reduction mechanism for interfiber coalescence during annealing, which is thought to be activated by a temperature-induced decrease in molecular order. Due to their reduced crystallinity and molecular order, the CW-derived PHBV biopapers, especially the 40 mol % 3HV sample, were found to be more ductile and tougher. In terms of barrier properties, the three copolymers performed similarly to water and limonene, but to oxygen, the 40 mol % sample showed the highest relative permeability. Overall, the materials developed, which are compatible with the Circular Bioeconomy organic recycling strategy, can have an excellent potential as barrier interlayers or coatings of application interest in food packaging.

The role of biotechnology in the transition from plastics to bioplastics: an opportunity to reconnect global growth with sustainability

Building new value chains, through the valorization of biomass components for the development of innovative bio-based products (BBPs) aimed at specific market sectors, will accelerate the transition from traditional production technologies to the concept of biorefineries. Recent studies aimed at mapping the most relevant innovations undergoing in the field of BBPs (Fabbri et al. 2019, Final Report of the Task 3 BIOSPRI Tender Study on Support to R&I Policy in the Area of Bio-based Products and Services, delivered to the European Commission (DG RTD)), clearly showed the dominant position played by the plastics sector, in which new materials and innovative technical solutions based on renewable resources, concretely contribute to the achievement of relevant global sustainability goals. New sustainable solutions for the plastic sector, either bio-based or bio-based and biodegradable, have been intensely investigated in recent years. The global bioplastics and biopolymers market size is expected to grow from USD 10.5 billion in 2020 to USD 27.9 billion by 2025 (Markets and Markets, 2020, Bioplastics & Biopolymers Market by Type (Non-Biodegradable/Bio-Based, Biodegradable), End-Use Industry (Packaging, Consumer Goods, Automotive & Transportation, Textiles, Agriculture & Horticulture), Region - Global Forecast to 2025), and this high growth is driven primarily by the growth of the global packaging end-use industry. Such relevant opportunities are the outcomes of intensive scientific and technological research devoted to the development of new materials with selected technical features, which can represent feasible substitutes for the fossil-based plastic materials currently used in the packaging sectors and other main fields. This article offers a map of the latest developments connected to the plastic sector, achieved through the application of biotechnological routes for the preparation of completely new polymeric structures, or drop-in substitutes derived from renewable resources, and it describes the specific role played by biotechnology in promoting and making this transition faster.

Food waste valorization: Energy production using novel integrated systems

Management of food waste (FW) is a global challenge due to increasing population and economic activities. Presently, landfill and incineration are the keyways of FW management, while economical and environmental sustainability have been an issue. Therefore, the biological processes have been investigated for resource and energy recovery from FW. However, these biological approaches have certain drawbacks and cannot be a complete solution for FW management. Therefore, this review aims to offer a detailed and complete analysis of current available technologies to achieve environmental and economical sustainability. In this context, zero solid waste discharge for resource and energy recovery has been put into view. Corresponding to which several innovative technologies using integrated biological methods for resource and energy recovery from FW have been elucidated.