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Allardyce D, Adu Mantey P, Szalecka M, Nkwo R, Loizidou EZ. Identification of a new class of proteasome inhibitors based on a naphthyl-azotricyclic-urea-phenyl scaffold. RSC Med Chem 2023; 14:573-582. [PMID: 36970145 PMCID: PMC10034219 DOI: 10.1039/d2md00404f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Proteasomes play an important role in protein degradation and regulation of many cellular pathways by maintaining protein balance. Inhibitors of proteasomes disrupt this balance affecting proteins that are key in malignancies and as such have found applications in the treatment of multiple myeloma and mantle cell lymphoma. However, resistance mechanisms have been reported for these proteasome inhibitors including mutations at the β5 site which necessitates the constant development of new inhibitors. In this work, we report the identification of a new class of proteasome inhibitors, polycyclic molecules bearing a naphthyl-azotricyclic-urea-phenyl scaffold, from screening of the ZINC library of natural products. The most potent of these compounds showed evidence of dose dependency through proteasome assays with IC50 values in the low micromolar range, and kinetic analysis revealed competitive binding at the β5c site with an estimated inhibition constant, K i, of 1.15 μM. Inhibition was also shown for the β5i site of the immunoproteasome at levels similar to those of the constitutive proteasome. Structure-activity relationship studies identified the naphthyl substituent to be crucial for activity and this was attributed to enhanced hydrophobic interactions within β5c. Further to this, halogen substitution within the naphthyl ring enhanced the activity and allowed for π-π interactions with Y169 in β5c and Y130 and F124 in β5i. The combined data highlight the importance of hydrophobic and halogen interactions in β5 binding and assist in the design of next generation inhibitors of proteasomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duncan Allardyce
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Natural Sciences, Middlesex University The Burroughs London NW4 4BT UK
| | - Priscilla Adu Mantey
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Natural Sciences, Middlesex University The Burroughs London NW4 4BT UK
| | - Monika Szalecka
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Natural Sciences, Middlesex University The Burroughs London NW4 4BT UK
| | - Robert Nkwo
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Natural Sciences, Middlesex University The Burroughs London NW4 4BT UK
| | - Eriketi Z Loizidou
- Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Natural Sciences, Middlesex University The Burroughs London NW4 4BT UK
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2
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Kisselev AF. Site-Specific Proteasome Inhibitors. Biomolecules 2021; 12:54. [PMID: 35053202 PMCID: PMC8773591 DOI: 10.3390/biom12010054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteasome is a multi-subunit protein degradation machine, which plays a key role in the maintenance of protein homeostasis and, through degradation of regulatory proteins, in the regulation of numerous cell functions. Proteasome inhibitors are essential tools for biomedical research. Three proteasome inhibitors, bortezomib, carfilzomib, and ixazomib are approved by the FDA for the treatment of multiple myeloma; another inhibitor, marizomib, is undergoing clinical trials. The proteolytic core of the proteasome has three pairs of active sites, β5, β2, and β1. All clinical inhibitors and inhibitors that are widely used as research tools (e.g., epoxomicin, MG-132) inhibit multiple active sites and have been extensively reviewed in the past. In the past decade, highly specific inhibitors of individual active sites and the distinct active sites of the lymphoid tissue-specific immunoproteasome have been developed. Here, we provide a comprehensive review of these site-specific inhibitors of mammalian proteasomes and describe their utilization in the studies of the biology of the active sites and their roles as drug targets for the treatment of different diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexei F Kisselev
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Harrison School of Pharmacy, Auburn University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA
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Allardyce DJ, Bell CM, Loizidou EZ. Argyrin B, a non-competitive inhibitor of the human immunoproteasome exhibiting preference for β1i. Chem Biol Drug Des 2019; 94:1556-1567. [PMID: 31074944 DOI: 10.1111/cbdd.13539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Inhibitors of the proteasome have found broad therapeutic applications; however, they show severe toxicity due to the abundance of proteasomes in healthy cells. In contrast, inhibitors of the immunoproteasome, which is upregulated during disease states, are less toxic and have increased therapeutic potential including against autoimmune disorders. In this project, we report argyrin B, a natural product cyclic peptide to be a reversible, non-competitive inhibitor of the immunoproteasome. Argyrin B showed selective inhibition of the β5i and β1i sites of the immunoproteasome over the β5c and β1c sites of the constitutive proteasome with nearly 20-fold selective inhibition of β1i over the homologous β1c. Molecular modelling attributes the β1i over β1c selectivity to the small hydrophobic S1 pocket of β1i and β5i over β5c to site-specific amino acid variations that enable additional bonding interactions and stabilization of the binding conformation. These findings facilitate the design of immunoproteasome selective and reversible inhibitors that may have a greater therapeutic potential and lower toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duncan J Allardyce
- Department of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Middlesex University, London, UK
| | - Celia M Bell
- Department of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Middlesex University, London, UK
| | - Eriketi Z Loizidou
- Department of Natural Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Middlesex University, London, UK
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Rut W, Poręba M, Kasperkiewicz P, Snipas SJ, Drąg M. Selective Substrates and Activity-Based Probes for Imaging of the Human Constitutive 20S Proteasome in Cells and Blood Samples. J Med Chem 2018; 61:5222-5234. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b00026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Wioletta Rut
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Marcin Poręba
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
- Program in Cell Death and Survival Networks, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Paulina Kasperkiewicz
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
- Program in Cell Death and Survival Networks, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Scott J. Snipas
- Program in Cell Death and Survival Networks, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Marcin Drąg
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspianskiego 27, 50-370 Wroclaw, Poland
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5
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Hewings DS, Flygare JA, Wertz IE, Bogyo M. Activity-based probes for the multicatalytic proteasome. FEBS J 2017; 284:1540-1554. [PMID: 28107776 DOI: 10.1111/febs.14016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Revised: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 01/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Proteasomes are multisubunit protease complexes responsible for degrading most intracellular proteins. In addition to removing damaged proteins, they regulate many important cellular processes through the controlled degradation of transcription factors, cell cycle regulators, and enzymes. Eukaryotic proteasomes have three catalytic subunits, β1, β2, and β5, that each has different substrate specificities. Additionally, although we know that diverse cell types express proteasome variants with distinct activity and specificity profiles, the functions of these different pools of proteasomes are not fully understood. Covalent inhibitors of the protease activity of the proteasome have been developed as drugs for hematological malignancies and are currently under investigation for other diseases. Therefore, there is a need for tools that allow direct monitoring of proteasome activity in live cells and tissues. Activity-based probes have proven valuable for biochemical and cell biological studies of the role of individual proteasome subunits, and for evaluating the efficacy and selectivity of proteasome inhibitors. These probes react covalently with the protease active sites, and contain a reporter tag to identify the probe-labeled proteasome subunits. This review will describe the development of broad-spectrum and subunit-specific proteasome activity-based probes, and discuss how these probes have contributed to our understanding of proteasome biology, and to the development of proteasome inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- David S Hewings
- Discovery Chemistry, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA, USA.,Early Discovery Biochemistry, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA, USA.,Discovery Oncology, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA, USA.,Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - John A Flygare
- Discovery Chemistry, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Ingrid E Wertz
- Early Discovery Biochemistry, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA, USA.,Discovery Oncology, Genentech, South San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Matthew Bogyo
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, USA
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6
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Emerging role of immunoproteasomes in pathophysiology. Immunol Cell Biol 2016; 94:812-820. [PMID: 27192937 DOI: 10.1038/icb.2016.50] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2015] [Revised: 05/15/2016] [Accepted: 05/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The immunoproteasome is a proteasome variant that is found only in jawed vertebrates. It is responsible for degrading intracellular proteins to generate a major source of peptides with substantial major histocompatibility complex I binding affinity. The immunoproteasome also has roles in T-cell survival, differentiation and proliferation in various pathological conditions. In humans, any alteration in the expression, assembly or function of the immunoproteasome can lead to cancer, autoimmune disorders or inflammatory diseases. Although the roles of the immunoproteasome in cancer and neurodegenerative disorders have been extensively studied, its significance in other disease conditions has only recently become known. Therefore, there is renewed interest in the development of drugs, vaccines and biomarkers that target the immunoproteasome. The current review highlights the involvement of this complex in disease pathology in addition to the advances made in immunoproteasome research.
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Abstract
Chemical biology has a significant role to play in the discovery and validation of new therapeutic targets. Activity- and affinity-based probes have demonstrated considerable promise in the drug discovery setting as they provide a chemoproteomic means to confirm and quantify target engagement and selectivity of small molecule drug candidates. Many of these technologies have been developed using cell lysate (through the use of resin-immobilized enzyme inhibitors for example), but this does not represent the biology of an intact cell. This review highlights recent advances made in the design and application of cell-permeable probes that report on target activity and drug-target occupancy in living cells, thus providing a means to decipher molecular pharmacology and pathology in a more physiologically relevant manner.
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Carvalho LAR, Ruivo EFP, Lucas SD, Moreira R. Activity-based probes as molecular tools for biomarker discovery. MEDCHEMCOMM 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c4md00417e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Activity-based protein profiling has emerged as an exceptional tool for biomarker discovery and validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- L. A. R. Carvalho
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa)
- Faculty of Pharmacy
- Universidade de Lisboa. Av. Prof. Gama Pinto
- 1649-003 Lisboa
- Portugal
| | - E. F. P. Ruivo
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa)
- Faculty of Pharmacy
- Universidade de Lisboa. Av. Prof. Gama Pinto
- 1649-003 Lisboa
- Portugal
| | - S. D. Lucas
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa)
- Faculty of Pharmacy
- Universidade de Lisboa. Av. Prof. Gama Pinto
- 1649-003 Lisboa
- Portugal
| | - R. Moreira
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa)
- Faculty of Pharmacy
- Universidade de Lisboa. Av. Prof. Gama Pinto
- 1649-003 Lisboa
- Portugal
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Paniagua Soriano G, De Bruin G, Overkleeft HS, Florea BI. Toward understanding induction of oxidative stress and apoptosis by proteasome inhibitors. Antioxid Redox Signal 2014; 21:2419-43. [PMID: 24437477 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2013.5794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Proteasome inhibitors (PIs) are used in the clinic for the treatment of hematopoietic malignancies. PI inhibitors induce endoplasmatic reticulum (ER) stress and oxidative stress, disruption of signaling pathways, mitochondrial dysfunction, and, eventually, cell death by apoptosis. PIs designated as clinical candidates include natural product derivatives and compounds developed by rational design and feature a wide diversity of structural elements. The vast amount of literature on this topic underscores PIs significance in driving basic research alongside therapeutic benefit. RECENT ADVANCES Research in recent years has brought an in-depth insight into the molecular mechanisms of PI-induced apoptosis. However, there are some paradoxes and controversies in the literature. In this review, the advances and uncertainties, in particular on the time course events that make cells commit to apoptosis, are discussed. In addition, some mechanisms of evolved PI resistance are presented, and speculations on the difference in sensitivity between cell or tumor types are brought forward. The review concludes by giving an outlook of recent methods that may be employed to describe the system biology of how PIs impact cell survival decisions. CRITICAL ISSUES The biology of ER stress, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and apoptosis as induced by PIs is not well understood. Absorbed by the strong focus on PIs, one might overlook the importance of proteasome activity activators or modulators and the study of enzymatic pathways that lie up- or downstream from the proteasome function. FUTURE DIRECTIONS An increased understanding of the systems biology at mRNA and protein levels and the kinetics behind the interaction between PIs and cells is imperative. The design and synthesis of subunit specific inhibitors for each of the seven known proteasome activities and for the enzymes associated to proteasomes will aid in unraveling biology of the ubiquitin-proteasome system in relation to ER stress, ROS production, and apoptosis and will generate leads for therapeutic intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillem Paniagua Soriano
- Gorlaeus Laboratories, Leiden Institute of Chemistry and Netherlands Proteomics Centre , Leiden, The Netherlands
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Cornish Carmony K, Sharma LK, Lee DM, Park JE, Lee W, Kim KB. Elucidating the catalytic subunit composition of distinct proteasome subtypes: a crosslinking approach employing bifunctional activity-based probes. Chembiochem 2014; 16:284-92. [PMID: 25477005 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201402491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
In addition to two well-recognized proteasome subtypes-constitutive proteasomes and immunoproteasomes-mounting evidence also suggests the existence of intermediate proteasome subtypes containing unconventional mixtures of catalytic subunits. Although they appear to play unique biological roles, the lack of practical methods for detecting distinct proteasome subtypes has limited functional investigations. Here, we report the development of activity-based probes that crosslink two catalytic subunits within intact proteasome complexes. Identification of the crosslinked subunit pairs provides direct evidence of the catalytic subunit composition of proteasomes. Using these probes, we found that U266 multiple myeloma cells contain intermediate proteasomes comprising both β1i and β2, but not β1 and β2i, consistent with previous findings with other cell types. Our bifunctional probes can be utilized in functional investigations of distinct proteasome subtypes in various biological settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly Cornish Carmony
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 South Limestone Street, Lexington, KY 40536-0596 (USA)
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Miller Z, Ao L, Kim KB, Lee W. Inhibitors of the immunoproteasome: current status and future directions. Curr Pharm Des 2014. [PMID: 23181576 DOI: 10.2174/1381612811319220018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) plays a vital role in maintaining protein homeostasis and regulating numerous cellular processes. The proteasome, a multi-protease complex, is the key component of the UPS and has been validated as a therapeutic target by the FDA's approval of bortezomib and carfilzomib. These proteasome inhibitor drugs have substantially improved outcomes in patients with hematological malignancies and are currently being investigated for other types of cancer as well as several other diseases. These approved proteasome inhibitors target the catalytic activity of both the constitutive proteasome and the immunoproteasome indiscriminately, and their inhibitory effects on the constitutive proteasome in normal cells are believed to contribute to unwanted side effects. In addition, selective immunoproteasome inhibition has been proposed to have unique effects on other diseases, including those involving aberrant immune function. Initially recognized for its role in the adaptive immune response, the immunoproteasome is often upregulated in disease states such as inflammatory diseases and cancer, suggesting functions beyond antigen presentation. In an effort to explore the immunoproteasome as a potential therapeutic target in these diseases, the development of immunoproteasome-specific inhibitors has become the focus of recent studies. Owing to considerable efforts by both academic and industry groups, immunoproteasome-selective inhibitors have now been identified and tested against several disease models. These inhibitors also provide a valuable set of chemical tools for investigating the biological function of the immunoproteasome. In this review, we will focus on the recent efforts towards the development of immunoproteasome-selective inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary Miller
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, 789 South Limestone, Lexington, Kentucky 40536-0596, USA
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Abstract
Over the years, the proteasome has been extensively investigated due to its crucial roles in many important signaling pathways and its implications in diseases. Two proteasome inhibitors--bortezomib and carfilzomib--have received FDA approval for the treatment of multiple myeloma, thereby validating the proteasome as a chemotherapeutic target. As a result, further research efforts have been focused on dissecting the complex biology of the proteasome to gain the insight required for developing next-generation proteasome inhibitors. It is clear that chemical probes have made significant contributions to these efforts, mostly by functioning as inhibitors that selectively block the catalytic activity of proteasomes. Analogues of these inhibitors are now providing additional tools for visualization of catalytically active proteasome subunits, several of which allow real-time monitoring of proteasome activity in living cells as well as in in vivo settings. These imaging probes will provide powerful tools for assessing the efficacy of proteasome inhibitors in clinical settings. In this review, we will focus on the recent efforts towards developing imaging probes of proteasomes, including the latest developments in immunoproteasome-selective imaging probes.
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Micale N, Scarbaci K, Troiano V, Ettari R, Grasso S, Zappalà M. Peptide-Based Proteasome Inhibitors in Anticancer Drug Design. Med Res Rev 2014; 34:1001-69. [DOI: 10.1002/med.21312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Micale
- Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco e dei Prodotti per la Salute; Università degli Studi di Messina; Viale Annunziata 98168 Messina Italy
| | - Kety Scarbaci
- Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco e dei Prodotti per la Salute; Università degli Studi di Messina; Viale Annunziata 98168 Messina Italy
| | - Valeria Troiano
- Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco e dei Prodotti per la Salute; Università degli Studi di Messina; Viale Annunziata 98168 Messina Italy
| | - Roberta Ettari
- Dipartimento di Scienze Farmaceutiche; Università degli Studi di Milano; Via Mangiagalli 25 20133 Milano Italy
| | - Silvana Grasso
- Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco e dei Prodotti per la Salute; Università degli Studi di Messina; Viale Annunziata 98168 Messina Italy
| | - Maria Zappalà
- Dipartimento di Scienze del Farmaco e dei Prodotti per la Salute; Università degli Studi di Messina; Viale Annunziata 98168 Messina Italy
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Park JE, Wu Y, Carmony KC, Miller Z, Sharma LK, Lee DM, Kim DY, Lee W, Kim KB. A FRET-based approach for identification of proteasome catalytic subunit composition. MOLECULAR BIOSYSTEMS 2014; 10:196-200. [PMID: 24301521 PMCID: PMC3898201 DOI: 10.1039/c3mb70471h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Mammalian cells have two main types of proteasomes, the constitutive proteasome and the immunoproteasome, each containing a distinct set of three catalytic subunits. Recently, additional proteasome subtypes containing a non-standard mixture of catalytic subunits have gained increasing attention, especially due to their presence in cancer settings. However, practical methods for identifying proteasome subtypes have been lacking. Here, we report the development of the first fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based strategy that can be utilized to identify different proteasome subtypes present within cells. We have developed FRET donor- and acceptor-probes that are based on previously reported peptide epoxyketones and selectively target individual proteasome catalytic subunits. Using the purified proteasome and cancer cell lysates, we demonstrate the feasibility of a FRET-based approach for determining the catalytic subunit composition of individual 20S proteasome subtypes. Ultimately, this approach may be utilized to study the functions of individual proteasome subtypes in cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ji Eun Park
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky, USA 40536-0596.
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Sharma LK, Lee NR, Jang ER, Lei B, Zhan CG, Lee W, Kim KB. Activity-based near-infrared fluorescent probe for LMP7: a chemical proteomics tool for the immunoproteasome in living cells. Chembiochem 2012; 13:1899-903. [PMID: 22807337 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.201200307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Probing the unknown: The immunoproteasome, an alternative form of the constitutive proteasome, has been implicated in a number of pathological states such as cancer and autoimmune diseases. In an effort to understand the role of the immunoproteasome in cells, the first immunoproteasome-specific near-infrared fluorescent probe has been developed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lalit Kumar Sharma
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506, USA
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