Examining an elaborated sociocultural model of disordered eating among college women: the roles of social comparison and body surveillance

Integrating social media, body shame and psychological distress within the Elaborated Sociocultural Model

The Elaborated Sociocultural Model proposes exposure to sociocultural appearance pressures increases women's internalisation of the thin ideal, their engagement in social comparison and body surveillance, and subsequent body dissatisfaction and disturbances in eating (Fitzsimmons-Craft et al., 2011). Although this model has received some empirical support, it is limited in that it does not currently account for social media as a contemporary source of appearance pressure, nor include additional known outcomes of thin ideal internalisation (i.e., body shame, psychological distress). The current study tested the integration of these variables within the Elaborated Sociocultural Model. Using structural equation modelling with latent variables, the extended model provided acceptable to good fit to the data in a sample of 271 female participants. A latent variable representing sociocultural appearance pressures originating from social media, traditional media, family and peers was found to significantly predict thin ideal internalisation and body image concerns. Furthermore, both social comparison and body surveillance emerged as indirect mediators of the relationship between thin ideal internalisation and body image concerns, which in turn, increased report of restrained eating and psychological distress. Aligning with previous research, this extended model offers a useful and comprehensive framework for investigating women's body image.

Adolescent-perceived parent-child negative body talk and disordered eating: Evidence for behavior-specific affective mediators

INTRODUCTION

This study examined the mediating role of general negative affect and body-specific negative affect between the association between negative body talk occurring within the mother-daughter relationship and restrained and disinhibited disordered eating.

METHODS

Adolescent girls (N = 100; Mage = 14.25; 49.5% White) completed self-report measures of general negative affect (depression and anxiety), body-specific negative affect (body dissatisfaction), and perceptions of the frequency that negative body talk occurred in interactions with their mother (initiated by the mother or daughter) as part of a cross-sectional study. While the same set of questionnaires was administered to both mothers and daughters, only the data reported by the daughters were analyzed and included in this study. Data were gathered in the Ann Arbor/Ypsilanti area of Michigan, USA, around the year 2015.

RESULTS

Path analysis showed that general negative affect, but not body-specific negative affect, mediated the association from mother-daughter negative body talk to disinhibited eating behaviors (emotional and external eating). Conversely, body-specific negative affect, but not general negative affect, mediated the association from negative body talk to restrained eating behaviors.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest there are distinct affective mechanisms that mediate the relationship between mother-daughter negative body talk and restrained versus disinhibited eating behavior. Future work should continue to explicate the role of general and body-related negative affect in different eating behaviors.

Profiles of body image concerns and their associations with disordered eating behaviors

Although body image concerns (BIC) are recognized as a core driver in the development of disordered eating behaviors, the combined role of various types of BIC remains underexamined. This study relied on latent profile analysis to identify the main configurations of self-reported BIC (i.e., body checking and avoidance, perceived physical appearance, and fear of negative appearance evaluation) observed in a sample of 419 French-Canadian individuals (Mage = 26.59, SDage = 9.23). The role of body mass index, sex, and age on profile membership was also examined, as well as the relation between profile membership and disordered eating behaviors (i.e., dieting, bulimia and food preoccupation, and oral control). Six distinct BIC profiles differing in terms of shape and level were identified, with women being more likely to display a profile characterized by higher levels of BIC. In turn, profiles characterized by higher levels of BIC were associated with more disordered eating behaviors. The present study can broaden our understanding of the onset and maintenance of disordered eating behaviors and inspire the development of more tailored body-image interventions.

The whole is more than the sum of its parts: A qualitative investigation of body-dissatisfied college women's experiences of relational body image

Research on relational body image suggests that women's body image changes across their important relationships, with women most at risk for maladaptive body image reporting the most extreme changes. To enrich our understanding of relational body image beyond that offered by prior psychologically-based quantitative research, the present study integrated critical-feminist approaches. Eighteen female-identified university students participated in a one-on-one semi-structured interview. Each participant first completed ratings of her body image across seven important relationships, which the interviewer used to create a graph depicting her relational body image. The interviewer shared the graph with the participant to prompt reflection on her subjective experiences of relational body image and asked her a series of questions. Reflexive thematic analysis, informed by a critical-realist framework, was used to identify themes. One overarching theme, "The Whole Is More than The Sum of Its Parts," demonstrated how relational body image may be understood as a unique configuration of interconnected factors within a specific relationship. Three subthemes then highlighted how interpersonal, idiographic, and systemic factors come together to influence subjective experiences of relational body image. The present results suggest that personalized treatment targets within specific relationships may be a worthwhile focus for future body image interventions.

Thin Ideal Internalization Assessment (THIINA): Development and Psychometric Validation of a New Measure of Female Body Image

Thin ideal internalization is widely implicated in women's body image and eating disturbances. A recently proposed multidimensional operationalization of internalization suggests the brevity and construct validity of existing questionnaires may limit the assessment of thin ideal internalization. Therefore, this research aimed to develop a new questionnaire (i.e., Thin Ideal Internalization Assessment; THIINA) to comprehensively assess thin ideal internalization. In Study 1, 301 female participants were administered the THIINA. Exploratory factor analyses revealed the 17-item THIINA had a stable 3-factor structure reflecting thin idealization, thin overvaluation, and thin behavioral drive. In Study 2, 337 female participants were administered the THIINA and validation measures. Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed stability of the 3-factor structure and findings supported convergent, discriminant, and incremental validity of the THIINA. Support for temporal stability was found within a sub-sample of participants (n = 132). The THIINA demonstrated strong psychometric properties, a stable three-factor structure representing theoretically-driven domains, and support for the creation of a composite score representing overall thin ideal internalization. These findings suggest the multidimensional operationalization and measurement of thin ideal internalization could improve theoretical and clinical understanding of the impact of thin ideal internalization on women's body image and eating.

Mirror, mirror, on the social media … WeChat Moments usage and negative body image among female college students: Evidence from ecological momentary assessment data

Negative body image is prevalent among women and may lead to physical and mental health problems. Social media-including China's most popular platform, WeChat Moments-aggregates multiple aspects of appearance-related pressure and therefore is an important risk factor for negative body image. The current study examines the relationship between WeChat Moments usage and body image among female college students and the mediating mechanism of body surveillance. A sample of 151 female college students completed a 7-day ecological momentary assessment (EMA), responded to three surveys per day, and provided a total of 2949 EMA responses. We used multilevel structural equation modeling (MSEM) to examine the hypothesized models at both the between- and within-individual levels. The results showed that both overall WeChat Moments usage and appearance-related exposure on WeChat Moments were inversely and indirectly related to body image through the mediating role of body surveillance at the between-individual level. However, both overall WeChat Moments usage and appearance-related exposure on WeChat Moments were positively and indirectly related to body image through body surveillance at the within-individual level. Our findings indicate that WeChat Moments usage is associated with college women's body image differently at the between- and within-individual level, and body surveillance serves as a crucial underlying mechanism.

Social and Individual Factors Associated with Eating Disorders in Young Athletes: Effects on Concentration and Fatigue

Eating disorders are a growing societal problem, especially among young people. This study aims to determine the individual and social factors that support and perpetuate the risk of eating disorders (ED) and their possible consequences on an individual's athletic and academic performances. The sample consisted of 395 athletes between 12 and 16 years of age (M = 14.07; SD = 1.35), of whom 142 (35.9%) were female, and 253 (64.1%) were male. A questionnaire was administered to collect information on sociodemographic data, body image, use of social networks, social relationships, sports practice, risk of developing ED, and academic and sports performance. In the resulting analysis, an initial cross-tabulation was carried out to observe the body distortion of the respondents as a function of BMI, followed by a linear regression to analyze the factors influencing the risk of suffering from ED. In addition, correlations were made to determine the relationship between the risk of manifesting ED and academic and sports performance. The main results show that 77.7% of the young athletes present a risk of ED (M = 13.3; DT = 3.33) due to a high body image distortion, which becomes the determining factor. In addition, relationships with family and friends have a significant influence on this. On the other hand, behaviors related with eating disorders affect concentration (r = -0.122; p = 0.01) and fatigue (r = -0.376; p < 0.01). For all these reasons, generating and promoting prevention and early detection guidelines during adolescence is necessary.

Psychometric Examination of the Body, Eating, and Exercise Comparison Orientation Measure (BEECOM) among Spanish Adolescents and Young Adults

The Body, Eating, and Exercise Comparison Orientation Measure (BEECOM) has been frequently used within the context of research on eating disorders (ED). Although both long (BEECOM-L) and short (BEECOM-S) versions of the instrument exist, their psychometric properties have not yet been concurrently investigated across different populations in terms of age and gender. The present study aimed to compare the psychometric properties of both the BEECOM-L and the BEECOM-S among Spanish male and female non-clinical adolescents and young adults. Data from 4 samples including 1213 middle school and college students enrolled in 10 education centers from southern Spain (age ranging from 12 to 35 years, M_age = 17.796, SD_age = 4.796, 53% females) were analyzed using factorial, correlation, and regression analysis techniques. Results provided evidence that support the reliability, measurement invariance according to age and gender, and convergent/incremental validity for the scores from both the BEECOM-L and BEECOM-S. Concerning factorial validity, marginally acceptable and adequate goodness-of-fit indices were obtained for the BEECOM-L and BEECOM-S, respectively. The BEECOM-S proves to be a psychometrically sound instrument with potential value for assessing social comparisons focused on body, eating, and exercise in non-clinical adolescents and young adults from Spain.

Disordered eating symptoms as a function of perceived weight status and race: An intersectional examination

Disordered eating (DE) exhibited by individuals with intersecting marginalized identities may be less likely to be perceived as pathological compared to DE exhibited by individuals with non-marginalized identities. The present experiment tested the intersectional impact of weight status and race stimuli on responses to DE in a college sample. Undergraduate students (N = 193, M_age = 18.57, SD = 1.88, 71 % female) read a fictional account from a female target with DE who was described as "underweight," "average weight," or "overweight," and "White" or "Black." Participants completed an in-lab survey assessing detection of and responses to DE. Three 2 (race: Black, White) x 3 (weight status: underweight, average weight, overweight) ANCOVAs revealed a main effect of weight status. DE was more likely to be detected in "underweight" than "average" and "overweight" targets (p < .001). Participants encouraged weight loss for "average" and "overweight" targets compared to "underweight" targets (p < .001) and encouraged weight restoration for "underweight" targets compared to "average weight" and "overweight" targets (p < .001). No significant effects for target race or interaction between weight status and race emerged. These findings underscore the salience of weight status in shaping perceptions of DE.

The associations between photo-editing and body concerns among females: A systematic review

Emerging research has raised concerns about the growing prevalence of photo-editing behaviour and how this may negatively interact with body-related concerns among females. This review aimed to systematically examine the current evidence relating to the associations between photo-editing behaviour and female body concerns, including body image, body dissatisfaction and body modification. Six databases were searched for studies investigating associations between photo-editing and body concerns in female social media users. Empirical studies published in English were included if they quantitatively measured the association between photo-editing and at least one of the body-related outcomes, and included female participants. A narrative synthesis of the 22 studies meeting these specific criteria was completed. This review revealed mixed findings in relation to the associations between photo-editing and body concerns. The findings indicate there may be a more complex relationship between both concepts that is influenced by alternative factors. The findings also revealed considerable heterogeneity in measurement approaches for both photo-editing behaviour and body-related outcomes. Future research should focus on developing a gold-standard approach to the measurement of various body-related concerns and conducting in-depth analyses in order to further understand the complex relationship between photo-editing and female social media users' body concerns.

Examining appearance pressures, thinness and muscularity internalizations, and social comparisons as correlates of drive for muscularity and thinness-oriented disordered eating in Chinese heterosexual men and women: Testing an integrated model

Given existing empirical support for the tripartite influence and social comparison models to explain variance in body dissatisfaction and disordered eating across diverse populations in the Western context, research is needed to describe these models in non-Western populations. The present study tested an integrated model inclusive of appearance pressures, thinness and muscularity internalizations, and social comparisons in relation to drive for muscularity and thinness-oriented disordered eating in heterosexual Chinese adult men (n = 510) and women (n = 473). Separated by gender, two integrated models had good fit statistics per structural equation modeling. In men and women, higher appearance pressures were uniquely related to higher drive for muscularity and thinness-oriented disordered eating. In men and women, higher thinness and muscularity internalizations were uniquely related to higher thinness-oriented disordered eating and drive for muscularity, respectively. In men and women, higher upward body image comparisons were uniquely related to higher drive for muscularity, and in men only, higher downward body image comparisons were uniquely related to higher thinness-oriented disordered eating. The present findings, which extend theories of eating pathology, may aid in improving treatment efforts for body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in heterosexual Chinese adult men and women.

Looking at me, looking at you: The mediating roles of body surveillance and social comparison in the relationship between fit ideal internalisation and body dissatisfaction

Understanding the mechanisms through which internalisation of societal body standards lead to negative outcomes for women is important to inform prevention and treatment strategies targeting female body image issues and problematic eating and exercise behaviours. This study investigated the mediating roles of body surveillance and social comparison on the relationship between fit-ideal internalisation and a range of negative eating and body image related outcomes. Participants were 448 females, aged 16-25 years who completed self-report measures of fit-ideal internalisation, body surveillance, social comparison, body dissatisfaction, dieting, bulimic behaviours and compulsive exercise. Consistent with hypotheses, the results of parallel mediation analyses suggested that both body surveillance and social comparison mediated the relationship between fit-ideal internalisation and body dissatisfaction, dieting and bulimic behaviours. However, only social comparison was found to mediate the relationship between fit-ideal internalisation and compulsive exercise. The results suggest both body surveillance and social comparison are mechanisms by which fit internalisation detriments women's body image, making them potentially useful treatment targets for future research.

Experiences of mimicry in eating disorders

BACKGROUND

People unknowingly mimic the behaviors of others, a process that results in feelings of affiliation. However, some individuals with eating disorders describe feeling "triggered" when mimicked. This study explores the effects of implicit non-verbal mimicry on individuals with a history of an eating disorder (ED-His) compared to healthy controls (HCs).

METHOD

Women (N = 118, n_ED-His = 31; M_age = 21 years) participated in a laboratory task with a confederate trained to either discreetly mimic (Mimicry condition) or not mimic (No-Mimicry condition) the mannerisms of the participant. Participants rated the likability of the confederate and the smoothness of the interaction.

RESULTS

Participants in the No-Mimicry condition rated the confederate as significantly more likable than in the Mimicry condition, and ED-His rated the confederate as more likable than HCs. ED-His in the Mimicry condition rated the interaction as less smooth than HCs, whereas this pattern was not found in the No-Mimicry condition. Among ED-His, longer disorder duration (≥ 3.87 years) was associated with less liking of a confederate who mimicked and more liking of a confederate who did not mimic.

CONCLUSIONS

We discuss the implications of these findings for interpersonal therapeutic processes and group treatment settings for eating disorders. Our study on subtle, nonverbal mimicry revealed differences in social behavior for women with a history of an eating disorder compared to healthy women. For participants with an eating disorder history, a longer duration of illness was associated with a worse pattern of affiliation, reflected in lower liking of a mimicker. Further research on how diverging processes of affiliation may function to perpetuate the chronicity of eating disorders and implications for treatment is needed.

Looking beyond zoom fatigue: The relationship between video chatting and appearance satisfaction in men and women

OBJECTIVE

The COVID-19 pandemic led to a transition to the utilization of video chatting services as the main form of communication for work, family, and friends. However, the repercussions of this change are not fully known, and issues regarding appearance satisfaction are particularly salient. The purpose of the current study was to examine the relationship between video chatting and appearance satisfaction in a sample of men and women.

METHOD

The current study utilizes cross-sectional data from 618 participants (Age: M = 33.2; 54.1% women) to evaluate whether average video chat usage predicts appearance satisfaction, and whether this association is dependent upon appearance comparison or self-objectification.

RESULTS

Results indicated that individuals who spent more time video chatting reported higher appearance satisfaction. Additionally, appearance comparison and self-objectification were not significant moderators, and the association between video chat usage and appearance satisfaction did not differ based on gender. Usage of the touch-up feature, gallery view, and amount of time spent looking at oneself were associated with appearance comparisons, while adjusting lighting and camera angles and amount of time spent looking at oneself were associated with self-objectification.

DISCUSSION

The results may indicate that while overall time spent video chatting may be associated with lower appearance concerns, examination of the usage of specific features on video chatting platforms may be important to assess in the future.

PUBLIC SIGNIFICANCE

This study demonstrates that overall time spent video chatting may be associated with lower appearance concerns. The usage, however, of specific features on video chatting platforms, such as touch-up feature, gallery view, and amount of time spent looking at oneself were associated with appearance comparisons. Additionally, adjusting lighting and camera angles, and amount of time spent looking at oneself are associated with self-objectification.

Pathways from sociocultural and objectification constructs to body satisfaction among women: The U.S. Body Project I

Objectification theory proposes that widespread sexualization causes women to engage in surveillance of their appearance. We integrated this concept into a model with constructs from the tripartite influence model, which proposes that body dissatisfaction is a result of internalizing cultural notions of thin ideal beauty that stem from family, peer, and media appearance-related pressures. We tested this model with an online sample of 6327 adult women. Specifically, we tested whether these pressures predicted increased thin-ideal and muscular-ideal internalization, leading to greater body surveillance, and in turn lower appearance evaluation and body image quality of life. Structural equation modeling supported many aspects of the model. Family, peer, and media pressures related to higher thin-ideal internalization, which related to higher body surveillance and lower appearance evaluation. Peer and media pressures related to higher muscular-ideal internalization, which related to lower appearance evaluation. However, muscular-ideal internalization was not related to body image quality of life. An indirect relationship emerged between thin-ideal internalization and body image outcomes via body surveillance. Body mass index (BMI) moderated several of these model paths. Findings highlight the value of this integrated sociocultural model, and of BMI as an important moderating factor when examining objectification and tripartite influence models.

Pathways from sociocultural and objectification constructs to body satisfaction among men: The U.S. Body Project I

According to the tripartite influence model, body dissatisfaction is shaped by internalizing cultural appearance ideals stemming from appearance-related family, peer, and media pressures. This model was developed for women, but emerging evidence points to its relevance for men's body image. This study advanced this budding research by (a) integrating muscular-ideal internalization alongside lean-ideal internalization and body surveillance into the model, (b) examining two positive dimensions of body image as outcomes (body image quality of life and appearance evaluation), and (c) testing this model in national online sample of 5293 men. Structural equation modeling supported the model. Family, peer, and media pressures related to higher lean-ideal internalization, which related to higher body surveillance and poorer body image outcomes. Peer and media pressures related to higher muscular-ideal internalization, which related to higher body surveillance but more adaptive body image outcomes. We further examined whether model variables and paths differed based on men's body mass index (BMI). Men with higher BMIs evidenced a stronger path between body surveillance and body image outcomes. These findings highlight the usefulness of sociocultural models for understanding men's body image experiences.

Daily Exercise and Alcohol Use Among Young Adult College Students

The present study examined associations between exercise and alcohol use at the between- and within-person levels, including temporal sequencing and the impact of gender. Participants were 221 college students that completed an online survey and 14 daily surveys assessing their daily exercise and alcohol use. Individuals who reported higher exercise scores also consumed more alcohol, on average. On days when individuals reported consuming fewer drinks than usual, they also reported greater exercise scores. Individuals reported lower exercise scores following a day with heavier alcohol use than usual or a day with heavy episodic drinking. Exercise was unassociated with next-day alcohol use. There were mixed findings on the impact of gender. Exercise may have a more proximal influence on drinking. Exercise interventions for alcohol use could target days with higher probabilities of drinking to reduce levels of alcohol use among college students.

Internalization of body shape ideals and body dissatisfaction: A systematic review and meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

The present meta-analysis summarizes existing evidence on the relationship between the internalization of body shape ideals (IBSI) and body dissatisfaction.

METHOD

Pooled effect sizes (r) were computed using a random-effects model. The robustness of the results was examined using influence analyses. Potential predictors of effect heterogeneity were examined using subgroup analysis and univariable/multivariable meta-regressions. Publication bias was examined using the three-parameter selection model (3PSM).

RESULTS

A total of 141 effect-sizes from 78 studies (N = 39,491) were retrieved. Results revealed medium (r = .25; muscular/athletic-ideal internalization) to very large (r = .43, general attractiveness-ideal internalization; and r = .45, thin-ideal internalization) relationships, all these being largely similar in male and female individuals.

DISCUSSION

IBSI and body dissatisfaction were strongly linked: (a) in younger individuals (general attractiveness-ideal internalization); (b) when IBSI was operationalized in terms of endorsement rather than mere awareness of appearance ideals; (c) in studies of lower methodological quality (muscular/athletic-ideal internalization); and (d) when IBSI was assessed using instruments involving social comparisons. Given the largely cross-sectional nature of data included in this meta-analysis, further testing in prospective and experimental studies is needed to confirm hypotheses about causality of observed associations. Such findings would have impact for prevention and intervention studies.

Social appearance anxiety moderates the relationship between thin-ideal internalization and eating disorder symptoms cross-sectionally and prospectively in adolescent girls

PURPOSE

The sociocultural theory of eating disorders (EDs) posits that thin-ideal internalization may interact with social risk factors to influence ED development. Social appearance anxiety (SAA) is a potential social risk factor for EDs that may influence the relationship between thin-ideal internalization and EDs.

METHODS

The current study (N = 525 adolescent females) examined whether SAA moderated the relationship between thin-ideal internalization and ED symptoms cross-sectionally and prospectively across one month.

RESULTS

The interaction between thin-ideal internalization and SAA on ED symptoms was significant in both models, such that when SAA was higher, there was a significantly stronger relationship between thin-ideal internalization and ED symptoms. We also found that SAA uniquely, prospectively predicted ED symptoms.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that adolescents with high SAA and high thin-ideal internalization are more likely to exhibit higher ED symptoms. SAA both prospectively predicts ED symptoms and may amplify the relationship between thin-ideal internalization and EDs. This research highlights SAA as a social risk factor for ED development in adolescents. Interventions focused on SAA may optimize ED prevention in this population.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, evidence obtained from multiple time series with or without the intervention.

Examining eating disorder-related social comparison orientation and body dissatisfaction in the relationship between fit ideal internalization and drunkorexia engagement

The aim of the present study was to examine the relationship between fit ideal internalization and drunkorexia engagement in women. Specifically, in line with the Tripartite Influence Model, we examined the indirect effect of fit ideal internalization on drunkorexia through eating disorder-related social comparison orientation and body dissatisfaction. Data were collected from two samples of women-college undergraduate students (n = 198) and women recruited through Amazon Mechanical Turk (n = 324)-in order to test the model across the two groups. All participants completed the consent forms and then questionnaires via Qualtrics between March and June 2020. The results suggest that fit ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, and eating disorder-related social comparison orientation are linked to drunkorexia. More specifically, multigroup path analyses indicated that there was an indirect effect of fit ideal internalization on drunkorexia via eating disorder-related social comparison orientation but not through body dissatisfaction. In examining the role of different types of eating disorder-related social comparison orientation (body, eating, exercise) in the model, more nuanced patterns emerged across the samples. Future research examining potential mediators and moderators of the relationship between eating disorder-related social comparison orientation and drunkorexia would be beneficial in expanding this area of study.

Body image perception, smoking, alcohol use, indoor tanning, and disordered eating in young and middle-aged adults: findings from a large population-based Swedish study

BACKGROUND

Body image concerns may give rise to a multitude of risk behaviors, such as unhealthy weight control practices, disordered eating behaviors (e.g., compensatory purging or preoccupation with food), smoking, excessive alcohol intake, or sunbed use. However, the distribution of these risk behaviors across adulthood has rarely been studied.

METHODS

The aim of this study was to explore health risk behaviors as correlates of body image perception in a randomly selected study population of 30,245 individuals aged 30-66 in Stockholm, Sweden, utilizing data from the Stockholm Public Health Cohort. Bivariate correlations were explored and a hierarchic binary logistic regression analysis was performed.

RESULTS

The prevalence of body image discrepancy was higher among smokers and respondents displaying disordered eating behaviors. In contrast, alcohol and sunbed use were inversely correlated to body image discrepancy. Body mass index was the substantially strongest explanatory factor behind the observed variance in body image discrepancy, followed by loss-of-control eating. Notably, no major gender differences in body image perception were detected. Some unexpected patterns of association between variables other than body image perception, such as those between smoking, alcohol use, and sunbed use, were seen.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the patterns differ substantially from what has previously been found in adolescent and young adult samples, indicating that the synergy and aggregation of risk behaviors observed among younger individuals may not apply to adults aged 30-66.

Body-, eating-, and exercise-related social comparison behavior and disordered eating in college women in the U.S. and Iran: A cross-cultural comparison

Wearing of the hijab is associated with lower eating disorder (ED) attitudes and behaviors in women. However, this potential buffering role of the hijab has been questioned in countries, such as Iran, where its wearing is compulsory. Further, cross-cultural comparisons between disordered eating behaviors and correlates in Iranian and U.S. women are lacking. This study examines social-cognitive correlates of disordered eating in U.S. and Iranian women, comparing rates of ED- related social comparison and eating pathology. College women in the U.S. (n = 180) and Iran (n = 384) completed the Body, Eating, and Exercise Comparison Orientation Measure (BEECOM) and the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire (EDE-Q) in one session. One-way analyses of covariance and partial correlations were used to test the mean differences and inter-correlations between the variables among U.S. and Iranian women. U.S. women endorsed higher BEECOM scores and higher levels of overvaluation of weight and shape and dietary restraint compared to Iranians. Most BEECOM subscales and disordered eating symptoms were inter-correlated in each culture. The tendency to engage in exercise comparison was not significantly correlated with excessive exercise for U.S. women. Correlations between variables were stronger for U.S. women compared to Iranian women. While the ED-related social comparison levels were higher for U.S. women, the typical Western patterns of social comparison and disordered eating extend to Iranian women. Eating disorder-related social comparison is a recommended clinical target in both Eastern and Western cultures.

Validation of a Farsi version of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-4 (F-SATAQ-4) in Iranian men and women

Understanding sociocultural factors (i.e., thin-ideal internalization and pressures for thinness) is a key step in managing disordered eating risk. Although sociocultural factors may vary across cultures and nations, studies on populations outside of Europe and North America are sparse, and psychometric data are often lacking. The purpose of this study was to validate a Farsi version of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-4 (F-SATAQ-4) in Iranian college students. Participants (age 18-30) were recruited from Iranian universities, resulting in two separate convenience samples for Study 1 (n = 328 men, n = 342 women) and Study 2 (n = 336 men, n = 331 women). In Study 1, which followed back-translation procedure, exploratory factor analyses supported a 5-factor structure of the F-SATAQ-4 for men and women (i.e., thin-ideal internalization, athletic-ideal internalization, family pressure, media pressure, and peers pressure). In Study 2, confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the same structure for men and women. The F-SATAQ-4 subscales scores demonstrated excellent reliability, internal consistency, and weak convergent validity for men and women, as evidenced by significant Pearson's correlations with shape/weight concerns (EDE-Q), appearance evaluation (MBSRQ-AE), social comparison (PACS-R), perceived pressures for thinness (PSPS), BMI, as well as a partial discriminant validity with self-esteem (RSES) in women. Women scored higher on thin-ideal internalization, while men scored higher on athletic-ideal internalization. Participants with higher weights had higher scores on thin-ideal internalization and on family and peers pressures. The Farsi SATAQ-4 is a useful measure of internalization and pressures for thinness among Iranian college men and women.

Orthorexic eating in women who are physically active in sport: A test of an objectification theory model

The present study tested an objectification model of orthorexic eating (i.e., pattern of disordered eating characterized by a preoccupation with food quality and purity, ritualistic styles of eating, avoidance of foods considered unhealthy, and compulsive evaluation of the source and nutritional content of foods) in women who are physically active in sport. A community sample of women physically active in sport (N = 228) completed an online survey with measures of orthorexic eating, phenomenological and appearance-based self-objectification, phenomenological body shame, sport-based perfectionism, and athletic identity. Parallel mediation analysis (PROCESS; Model 4) demonstrated a significant indirect effect (ab) of phenomenological self-objectification on orthorexic eating through phenomenological body shame (b = -0.10, 95 % percentile bootstrap confidence interval (PB CI): -0.15, -0.06), adjusting for three covariate measures. The direct effect (c') of phenomenological self-objectification on orthorexic eating was not significant (b = 0.02, 95 % PB CI: -0.07, 0.10). The findings support an objectification theory model of orthorexic eating in community women who participate in sport.

The validity and reliability of the Farsi version of the Body, Eating, and Exercise Comparison Orientation Measure (F-BEECOM) among Iranian male and female students

Body-, eating-, and exercise-related social comparison tendencies are implicated in body dissatisfaction and disordered eating among Western women. To date, no published study examines eating- and exercise-related comparisons in a male or non-Western sample. The current series of studies fills these gaps in the literature by translating and validating the existing measure of these comparisons (the 18-item Body, Eating, and Exercise Comparison Orientation Measure [BEECOM]) in samples of Iranian men and women. In Studies 1 and 2, female (n = 284) and male (n = 302) participants completed the translated Farsi BEECOM. Scores were analyzed by exploratory factor analyses (EFA) revealing two different three factor, 15-item scale structures for men and women. In Studies 3 and 4, participants (female n = 384; male n = 253) completed measures of social comparison and psychological functioning in one session. These data were analyzed using confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) and Pearson correlations. Each CFA yielded adequately fitting models. Results support the use of two different 15-item Farsi BEECOM measures with women and men and highlight unique gender differences in social comparison tendencies. The resulting F-BEECOM demonstrates strong psychometric properties and will be a useful research tool in Iranian women and men.

Examining the self-reported advantages and disadvantages of socially networking about body image and eating disorders

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study is to understand the self-reported advantages and disadvantages of socially networking about body image/eating disorders (EDs) and to examine the openness of these participants to online outreach and support for ED symptoms.

METHOD

A cross-sectional online survey was conducted with a sample of N = 598. Eligible participants were ≥15 years old, English-speaking, and U.S. residents who endorsed posting or following thin-ideal/body-image content on social media. Quantitative measures were used to assess online peer support and online interaction preferences, and to identify ED symptoms. Deductive and inductive qualitative approaches were used to analyze open-ended items about the advantages and disadvantages of social networking about thin-ideal content on social media platforms (SMPs).

RESULTS

Among those who posted about the thin-ideal on social media, 70% felt that the peer responses were positive and supportive. Participants generally favored online interaction, and a third stated that they would accept support from someone they did not know online (38%). The most common advantages noted for posting/following thin-ideal content on SMPs were motivation/encouragement to engage in a certain behavior, socializing, and information giving/seeking. The most common disadvantages mentioned for posting/following thin-ideal content on SMPs were that the content elicits negative/bad feelings, having to deal with the negative consequences/reactions of others when socially networking about this topic, and that it triggers a desire to engage in ED behaviors.

DISCUSSION

With these findings, researchers, health practitioners, and social media administrators can devise ways to reduce harmful consequences of posting/following body-image/ED content on social media.

Appearance-Related Social Networking Sites and Body Image in Young Women: Testing an Objectification-Social Comparison Model

In this study, we drew on an integrated model of objectification and social comparison theories to test the associations between young women’s use of social networking sites and their body image concerns. A sample of 338 undergraduate women, aged 17–25 years, completed online questionnaire measures of engagement in three social networking site activities (browsing or following celebrity, fashion, and beauty sites, browsing or following fitspiration-related content, and placing importance on online “likes” and comments). Also assessed were upward appearance comparison, body surveillance, social appearance anxiety, and two indices of body image concerns (drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction). Structural equation modeling was used to test two competing models, both of which posited social appearance anxiety as the immediate precursor to body image concerns. In line with the integrated objectification-social comparison model, results supported a serial mediation model that comprised significant paths from two of the social networking site activities (browsing or following celebrity, fashion, and beauty sites, and placing importance on online “likes” and comments) through, in turn, upward appearance comparison, body surveillance, and social appearance anxiety, to drive for thinness and body dissatisfaction. Viewing fitspiration-related content was associated with body image concerns directly, rather than indirectly. Findings highlight objectification and appearance comparison factors as targets for future interventions regarding appearance-related social networking site use.

Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in Native American, Hispanic, and White College Women

PURPOSE

The sociocultural model of eating disorders asserts that societies which emphasize the thin-ideal have higher rates of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. Recent research questions the related presumption that non-White cultures value a larger ideal female and thus have lower rates of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. The limited research on these constructs in racial/ethnic minorities primarily has used non-validated instruments. The current study investigated rates of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating with validated, widely used measures.

METHODS

Measures of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating were completed by 896 college women in the United States: 473 Hispanics, 341 non-Hispanic whites, and 82 Native Americans.

RESULTS

Although Native Americans and Hispanics had higher body mass indices (and larger ideal shapes) than White women, the groups had similar body dissatisfaction scores. Native Americans reported somewhat less restricted eating compared to White women. When controlling for body mass index and age, group differences on body dissatisfaction emerged and the group differences in eating disorder symptoms became more pronounced, with White women showing more pathology. Reliability and validity across groups were good.

CONCLUSIONS

This study offers some support for the sociocultural model of eating disorders and provides mean scores for Native American and Hispanic females on widely-used eating disorder measures.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level V, cross-sectional descriptive study.

The protective role of self-compassion for women's positive body image: an open replication and extension

The development and maintenance of positive body image in women may be disrupted by sociocultural appearance-related pressures. Therefore, it is critical to explore factors that may safeguard women's positive body image. A recent study by Homan and Tylka (2015) found that in a large sample (N = 263) of female MTurk workers and university-aged women, both appearance-contingent self-worth and body-based social comparisons were linked to less positive body image, but these links were attenuated in the face of high self-compassion. This research, an independent direct replication of the original study, supported the original findings. In a new, larger sample (N = 363 female-identified MTurk workers), signals were detected that were similar in size and magnitude to the original study. Specifically, while appearance-contingent self-worth and body-based social comparisons were negatively linked to body appreciation, those who endorsed higher levels of self-compassion reported a more positive body image, even in the presence of these potential threats. Findings are extended to eating- and exercise-based social comparisons. All materials, including the replication protocol, data management plan, dataset, SPSS syntax, and output are publicly available on the Open Science Framework at: https://osf.io/r274y/. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Mukbang and Disordered Eating: A Netnographic Analysis of Online Eating Broadcasts

Mukbang is a recent Internet phenomenon in which video recordings of hosts eating large amounts of food are streamed on an online video platform. It originated in South Korea around 2014 and has since become a global trend. The aim of this study was to explore how viewers of mukbang videos relate their audience experiences to symptoms of disordered eating. A qualitative analysis of YouTube comments and Reddit posts on the topic of mukbang and disordered eating was performed, employing a netnographic approach. Two overarching themes were identified: a viewer perspective, by which users discuss mukbang without describing any personal involvement, and a participant perspective, by which users describe their own experiences of affects and behaviors in response to watching mukbang. Several topical categories emerged, describing how watching mukbang can both limit and increase eating, reduce loneliness and guilt, and become self-destructive. For some, mukbang appears to be a constructive tool in increasing food intake, preventing binge eating, or reducing loneliness; for others, it is clearly a destructive force that may motivate restrictive eating or trigger a relapse into loss-of-control eating. Notably, watching mukbang is not necessarily experienced as either helpful or destructive, but instead as simultaneously useful and hurtful.

"It's Better to Be Depressed Skinny than Happy Fat:" College Women's Memorable Body Messages and Their Impact on Body Image, Self-Esteem, and Rape Myth Acceptance

This study investigated the content of memorable body messages that college women recall receiving in their childhood, and the relationship of those messages to state body image satisfaction, self-esteem, rape myth acceptance, and likelihood to report rape or sexual assault. Memorable messages were mostly about body size, body type, body parts, haptic messages, body positivity, and development. Mothers were the most frequent source of memorable body messages during childhood. Although there was no difference in any of the dependent variables based on the content of the message, there was a relationship between perceived message valence with body image, self-esteem, and rape myth acceptance. Messages that participants interpreted as more positive and beneficial were associated with higher body image satisfaction, higher self-esteem, and increased rape myth acceptance.

Reconceptualizing anorexia nervosa

Anorexia nervosa (AN) has one of the highest mortality rates of any psychiatric disorder. Treatments are often ineffective and relapse is common. Most research attempting to understand the underlying causes and maintenance factors of AN has focused on environmental contributions, yet there is much to be explored in terms of biological risk and maintenance factors. In this paper, we focus primarily on AN research related to genetics and the complex microbial community in the gut (intestinal microbiota), and how these impact our conceptualization of this disorder. Emerging research identifying significant negative genetic correlations between AN and obesity suggests that the conditions may represent 'metabolic bookends'. The identification of underlying biological mechanisms may provide both insight into extreme weight dysregulation on both ends of the spectrum and new possible points of entry for AN treatment. Additionally, the reported microbial imbalance (dysbiosis) in the gut microbiota in AN patients, potentially due to a nutrient- and energy-deprived gut environment, implies alterations in functional and metabolic capacity of the gut microbiome. The extent to which AN and obesity can also be considered to be 'microbiome bookends' requires further investigation. Finally, we discuss ongoing and future AN projects exploring the interplay between host genomics, the environment, and cumulative microbial genomes (microbiome) as well as interventions at the microbial and gut level.

Body-, Eating-, and Exercise-Related Comparisons During Eating Disorder Recovery and Validation of the BEECOM-R

Social comparison tendencies are strongly associated with body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. In the current study, we quantitatively examined the structure and predictive value of these constructs during eating disorder recovery. We revised an existing measure of body-, eating-, and exercise-related social comparisons, the Body, Eating, and Exercise Comparison Orientation Measure (BEECOM), to improve psychometric properties. We also assessed the psychometric properties of the shortened Body, Eating, and Exercise Comparison Orientation Measure-Revised (BEECOM-R) in a comparison sample, resulting in an abbreviated measure suitable for recovering, clinical, and non-clinical samples. Finally, we used the revised measure to examine the additive influence of body-, eating-, and exercise-related comparisons on shape and weight dissatisfaction and disordered eating cognitions among 150 women (ages of 18–35 years) in self-identified recovery. Results suggest that body-, eating-, and exercise-related social comparisons all continue to correlate with body dissatisfaction and disordered eating during recovery. A minority of participants reported these comparisons to be helpful during the recovery process. We recommend social comparison as a clinical target for most women seeking support for eating pathology. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ’s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/ 10.1177/0361684319851718

Adult Separation Anxiety Disorder Symptomology as a Risk Factor for Thin-Ideal Internalization: The Role of Self-Concept Clarity

The study of when and how individuals compare themselves against standards has been an enduring focus for clinical and social psychology researchers in efforts to facilitate well-being and health. Our study focused on internalization of the societal thin-ideal standard for feminine attractiveness, a construct that has proven to be very important in women's psychological health. Although multiple adverse consequences of thin-ideal internalization have been documented, the understanding of variability in the extent of thin-ideal internalization across women (e.g., why do some women strongly internalize thin-ideal standards when others do not?) is much less well developed. This research was conducted to explore the role of adult separation anxiety disorder (ASAD) symptomology and conceptions of the self in young women's propensity to internalize the thin-ideal attractiveness standard. Results show that elevated ASAD symptoms are associated with greater thin-ideal internalization. A structural equations model demonstrates the reason for this association; young women with higher ASAD symptomology exhibit lower self-concept clarity, which drives greater thin-ideal internalization. This research makes novel practical and conceptual contributions by (a) delineating a new risk factor for the development of thin-ideal internalization, (b) highlighting a previously undocumented vulnerability of women who experience ASAD symptoms, and (c) documenting the relationship between ASAD and lower self-concept clarity. Implications for mental health practitioners are discussed.

Social comparisons in eating disorder recovery: Using PhotoVoice to capture the sociocultural influences on women's recovery

OBJECTIVE

This qualitative study draws on a photo-elicitation method ("PhotoVoice") and semistructured interviews to examine the role of social comparison during the eating disorder (ED) recovery process.

METHOD

Thirty U.S. women in self-defined recovery, ages 18-35, used photography to capture personally meaningful social and cultural influences on their recovery, including factors supporting, and hindering their recovery process. Participants then shared these photographs with the research team, and described them in detail.

RESULTS

Photographs and interviews were examined for social comparisons using thematic analysis, and two broad categories emerged: recovery-promoting and recovery-hindering comparisons. Across the 30 interviews, participants reported 143 recovery hindering comparisons and 100 recovery promoting comparisons. The vast majority of comparisons involved friends and media personalities, and took place in vivo or on social media platforms. The presence of "upward" and "downward" food and body comparisons that both support and hinder recovery suggests that social comparisons during the recovery process are more nuanced than previously known.

DISCUSSION

The classically ascribed uses of comparison in social comparison theory do not appear to hold for women in ED recovery. Comparisons should be encouraged in treatment and interventions if and only if the comparisons are meant to support the recovery process.

Snaps, Selfies, and Shares: How Three Popular Social Media Platforms Contribute to the Sociocultural Model of Disordered Eating Among Young Women

The current study aimed to integrate and test the sociocultural model of disordered eating with theories explaining the impact of mass media on the development of disordered eating for users of three popular social networking platforms. Young women social networking site (SNS) users (age 18-24) who had never received an eating disorder diagnosis (N = 637) completed questions capturing their SNS gratifications and usage, body surveillance, social comparisons, body dissatisfaction, and eating pathology. Measures were administered in one online session. Model relationships were similar across users of all three SNS platforms: Facebook, Instagram, and Snapchat. Users of all platforms demonstrated a significant positive relationship between upward comparisons and disordered eating outcomes, and between body surveillance and disordered eating outcomes, although differences between models did emerge. Empirical findings support extending the sociocultural model of disordered eating to include SNS uses and gratifications.

Nature and consequences of positively-intended fat talk in daily life

The current study used ecological momentary assessment to explore the frequency, trait predictors, and momentary consequences of positively-intended fat talk, a specific sub-type of fat talk that involves making negative comments about one's own appearance with the view to making someone else feel better. A total of 135 women aged 18-40 completed trait measures of appearance-based comparisons, thin-ideal internalisation, body shame, and body surveillance, before completing a state-based component, involving six short surveys delivered via a smartphone app at random points during the day for seven days. Findings indicate that both self- and other-fat talk are common in daily social interactions, and that individuals with higher levels of trait negative body image were more likely to engage in fat talk. Self-fat talk negatively impacted state body satisfaction levels. Possible theoretical and practical implications are outlined.

The effect of functionality-focused and appearance-focused images of models of mixed body sizes on women's state-oriented body appreciation

Research demonstrates that exposure to appearance-focused images of models depicting societal standards of beauty negatively affect women's state-oriented body dissatisfaction. The purpose of this research was to extend this experimental research to women's state-oriented body appreciation. The 374 women participants were randomly assigned to view images that were either depicting a model who was representative or not representative of the thin ideal (body size), while this model was in either an appearance-focused pose or a function-oriented pose (pose type). State body appreciation increased significantly after viewing images depicting models who did not conform to societal standards of thinness (p<0.001). Exposure to the control condition images, which were images of natural environments, also produced increases in state body appreciation (p=0.049). These findings provide insight into the construct of state body appreciation and offer implications for future positive body image research.

René Girard and the Mimetic Nature of Eating Disorders

French historian and literary critic René Girard (1923-2015), most widely known for the concepts of mimetic desire and scapegoating, also engaged in the discussion of the surge of eating disorders in his 1996 essay Eating Disorders and Mimetic Desire. This article explores Girard's ideas on the mimetic nature and origin of eating disorders from a clinical psychiatric perspective and contextualizes them within the field of eating disorders research as well as in relation to broader psychological, sociological and anthropological models of social comparison and non-consumption. Three main themes in Girard's thinking on the topic of eating disorders are identified and explored: the 'end of prohibitions' as a driving force in the emergence of eating disorders, eating disorders as a phenomenon specific to modernity, and the significance of 'conspicuous non-consumption' in the emergence of eating disorders.

Exposure to thin-ideal media affect most, but not all, women: Results from the Perceived Effects of Media Exposure Scale and open-ended responses

Findings conflict as to whether thin-ideal media affect women's body satisfaction. Meta-analyses of experimental studies reveal small or null effects, but many women endorse appearance-related media pressure in surveys. Using a novel approach, two samples of women (Ns=656, 770) were exposed to bikini models, fashion models, or control conditions and reported the effects of the images their body image. Many women reported the fashion/bikini models made them feel worse about their stomachs (57%, 64%), weight (50%, 56%), waist (50%, 56%), overall appearance (50%, 56%), muscle tone (46%, 52%), legs (45%, 48%), thighs (40%, 49%), buttocks (40%, 43%), and hips (40%, 46%). In contrast, few women (1-6%) reported negative effects of control images. In open-ended responses, approximately one-third of women explicitly described negative media effects on their body image. Findings revealed that many women perceive negative effects of thin-ideal media in the immediate aftermath of exposures in experimental settings.

Eating disorder-related social comparison in college women's everyday lives

OBJECTIVE

This study examined: frequency of upward and downward body, eating, and exercise comparisons; context in which these comparisons occur; and body, eating, and exercise comparison direction as predictors of concurrent body dissatisfaction and disordered eating thoughts, urges, and behaviors in college women's everyday lives using ecological momentary assessment (EMA).

METHOD

Participants were 232 college women who completed a two-week EMA protocol, using their personal electronic devices to answer questions three times per day.

RESULTS

First, body, eating, and exercise comparisons were common. Second, when these comparisons were made, they were typically upward. Third, body comparisons were most oftentimes made about weight and shape and eating comparisons about healthiness and amount of food. Exercise comparisons were made on a wider variety of dimensions. Fourth, most body and eating comparisons were made with strangers and close friends, respectively, while exercise comparisons were made with a variety of individuals. Upward comparisons were usually made with acquaintances and strangers. Fifth, results shed light on where college women compare themselves. Sixth, upward comparisons were found to have negative consequences, and downward comparisons were generally not found to have a buffering effect on eating pathology.

DISCUSSION

Results suggest targeting not only body but also eating and exercise comparisons in intervention. Also, prevention/intervention approaches should not promote engagement in downward comparisons, as they were not found to be protective and were even harmful at times. Clinicians should be attuned to the categories on which, with whom, and where college women are most likely to compare.

Do universal media literacy programs have an effect on weight and shape concern by influencing media internalization?

The current study examined whether media internalization, found to mediate the relationship between selected prevention programs and outcomes, mediated the impact of two universal prevention programs that targeted risk factors for eating disorders and obesity, namely weight concern, and shape concern. Students randomized to a media literacy (Media Smart) program (N = 269, 65% females, mean age 12.97 years) and a healthy lifestyle (Life Smart) program (N = 347, 69% females, mean age 13.07 years) were included in the analyses. There were four waves of data (baseline, end of intervention, 6- and 12-month follow-up). Latent growth curve modeling was used to explore whether group assignment influenced levels of media internalization, and whether that in turn influenced change over time of our two outcome variables. Being randomly allocated to Media Smart as opposed to Life Smart resulted in less growth of both outcome variables through the influence on decreasing levels of media internalization. Findings provided support for the suggestion that media literacy programs exert an impact on outcomes related to eating disorder risk through changes to media internalization. Future research should examine whether these mechanisms of change differ between girls and boys.

The impact of appearance comparisons made through social media, traditional media, and in person in women's everyday lives

Appearance comparisons are an important sociocultural factor influencing women's body image. These comparisons can occur in different contexts (e.g., through magazines, social media, in person). However, little is known about the frequency and outcome of appearance comparisons made in different contexts in women's everyday lives. Using Ecological Momentary Assessment methods, female undergraduate students (n=146) completed a brief online survey at random times every day for 5 days. They reported the frequency, direction (upward, lateral, downward), and context of appearance comparisons, and also reported their appearance satisfaction, mood, and diet and exercise thoughts and behaviors. Upward appearance comparisons were the most common across all contexts. Upward comparisons through social media were associated with more negative outcomes on all measures (except diet and exercise behavior) than comparisons made in person, and with more negative mood than comparisons in any other context. These findings highlight the importance of the appearance comparison context.

Development and validation of makeup and sexualized clothing questionnaires

BACKGROUND

Body acceptance programs on college campuses indicated that collegiate women often report feeling pressure to dress in a sexualized manner, and use makeup to enhance beauty. Currently, no quantitative measures exist to assess attitudes and daily behaviors that may arise in response to perceived pressure to wear makeup or dress in a provocative manner. The goal of the current studies was to develop brief self-report questionnaires aimed at assessing makeup and sexualized clothing use and attitudes in young women.

METHODS

An exploratory factor analysis in a sample of 403 undergraduate women was used in Study 1 to create items to measure the pressure women feel to wear makeup and sexualized clothing. A confirmatory factor analysis (N = 153) was used in Study 2 to confirm the factor structure found in Study 1. An incremental validity analysis was also conducted in Study 2. Across both studies, participants completed online questionnaires.

RESULTS

In Study 1, items were developed for two questionnaires to assess perceived pressure to wear makeup and discomfort when not wearing makeup, and perceived pressure to wear sexualized clothing, and body image concerns with regards to sexualized clothing. The exploratory factor analyses revealed Unconfident and Unease scales for the Makeup Questionnaire (MUQ) and Body Dissatisfaction and Pressure scales for the Sexualized Clothing Questionnaire (SCQ). In Study 2, the confirmatory factor analyses confirmed the factor structure for the MUQ and SCQ. The incremental validity analysis revealed that these measures can be used to predict self-objectification and shape and weight concern in women.

CONCLUSION

These studies provide preliminary support for the factor structure of two novel questionnaires aimed at assessing perceived pressure to wear makeup and sexualized clothing.