Internalization as a mediator of the relationship between conformity to masculine norms and body image attitudes and behaviors among young men in Sweden, US, UK, and Australia

Development of Body Dissatisfaction in Women and Men at Different Educational Levels During the Life Course

BACKGROUND

Our study examines the rarely investigated associations between body dissatisfaction and educational level over the life course in women and men.

METHODS

A Finnish cohort (N = 1955) was followed by questionnaires at ages 22, 32, 42, and 52. Body dissatisfaction was measured by asking the respondents to evaluate their appearance using five response options. Analyses were done using logistic regression, while latent class analyses were used to identify classes of body dissatisfaction trajectories over the life course.

RESULTS

Body dissatisfaction increased with age in women and men. Among men, body dissatisfaction was related to lower education at the ages of 32 and 42. Also, men with lower education were more likely to maintain a less positive body image over the life course. In women, increasing body dissatisfaction during the life course was associated with lower education.

CONCLUSIONS

Differences in body dissatisfaction based on educational level are important to take into account in public health actions aiming to reduce socioeconomic inequalities in health and well-being.

The differential effects of state and trait masculinity and femininity on body satisfaction among sexual minority men

Masculine men are more likely to idealise being tall, muscular, and lean. Feminine men, on the other hand, are more likely to idealise leanness. At the trait level, masculinity and femininity have been linked with an unhealthy striving for these idealised traits and body dissatisfaction. However, it is unclear how feeling masculine or feminine in the moment might be associated with body satisfaction. Is feeling masculine and/or feminine associated with a boost in body satisfaction? In the first large-scale experience sampling study of masculinity and femininity (n_observations=25,133; N_participants=530), we find that state masculinity and femininity, but not trait, are associated with increased body satisfaction among sexual minority men. We also find a gender congruence effect whereby the positive associations between state masculinity/femininity on body satisfaction are more pronounced when these feelings align with trait levels of masculinity/femininity. Exploratory analyses revealed a moderating effect of eating disorder history. The associations between masculinity and femininity on body satisfaction were amplified for people who had been diagnosed with an eating disorder. This study presents the first evidence that the links between masculinity and femininity and body satisfaction can be delineated based on whether they are measured as traits or states.

Appearance between professionalism and work-related stress among marketing employees

BACKGROUND

Appearance and body language are key components of non-verbal communication and play an important role in the service and marketing sector.

OBJECTIVE

The aim was to explore experiences and perceptions of appearance issues related to work among employees in the marketing sector in Sweden.

METHODS

Interviews were conducted with 15 marketing and communication employees (five males, ten females), at multinational companies and a university. Thematic analyses were conducted, and content was organised in two themes with sub-themes: 1. Appearance from a resource perspective (Appearance benefits; Physical activity resources; Age benefits). 2. Appearance from a demand perspective (Adaptation to gender roles; Investment in appearance; Adaptation to situation and culture).

RESULTS

The findings showed that appearance was perceived as a resource for professionalism, work engagement and career in various ways. Appearance-related issues were not considered on organisational work level, but employees perceived unspoken demands to look good and appropriate to represent the company brand. The employees spent a considerable amount of time, money, and effort on appearance.

CONCLUSION

Appearance creates dualistic questions and points out several dilemmas that the individual struggle to solve, which creates stress in work. The character of unspoken demands on appearance and absent communication on organisational level make the stress-coping strategies complicated and the stress coping is mostly left for the individual to handle. A gender difference shows that compared to men, women more often experience negative stress generated by appearance-related issues in work. Education and actions at the managerial level of companies are needed.

Media pressure and the process of Westernization in the context of body self-assessment among young heterosexual and gay Polish men

Mass media and social networks portray a unified image of the perfect male body. The intensity and universality of this influence is an important element of the process of Westernization, especially in traditional cultures such as that of Poland. The main aim of the present study was to investigate the differences between Polish gay and heterosexual men in terms of the role played by self-esteem and the level of internalization of sociocultural standards of body appearance as predictors of the development of their body images. The research study was conducted by reference to 19- to 29-year-old Polish heterosexual (n = 287) and gay (n = 97) men. The variables were measured using Polish versions of the Sociocultural Attitudes towards Appearance Scale-3, the Self-Esteem Scale, and the Multidimensional Body–Self Relations Questionnaire. Statistical analyses identified several variables as the main predictors of body image in both heterosexual and gay young men: self-esteem, information-seeking, perceived pressure and the internalization of sociocultural standards regarding an athletic body image drawn from mass media. The only significant difference between the two groups was the fact that self-esteem, perceived pressure and the internalization of sociocultural standards from mass media did not play a predictive role with respect to Appearance Orientation among the group of gay men.

Men's Physical Stature: Tackling Heightism and Challenges in Fashion Consumption

In light of the limitations of previous research on fashion consumption by short men, the present study was undertaken to examine the relationship between male body image, height perceptions, clothing choice, garment fit, and heightism. In this study, 3D body scanning technology and in-depth interviews were employed to investigate the relational effects between men’s height, body image, and clothing consumption. In total, twelve men exhibiting a height of 5′ 8″ or less participated. The findings indicate that “heightism” is prevalent in today’s society. As well, the results reveal that overall appearance and physical stature become less important as people grow older. It is evident that short male consumers encounter challenges when they shop for fashionable and well-fitting clothing. They are underserved by the fashion industry and often impacted by judgmental biases. The study supports that garment alteration and buying clothes from the children’s section, or a bespoke tailor are not ideal solutions for short men. Furthermore, many of them just accept the fact that they are short and try to find ways to alleviate their frustration when consuming fashion.

Untangling the associations between generalized anxiety and body dissatisfaction: The mediating effects of social physique anxiety among collegiate men and women

Researchers disagree on which types of anxiety influence body dissatisfaction and how gender (cisgender men vs. cisgender women) may impact these associations. Specifically, little is known about how generalized anxiety and social physique anxiety combine to predict body dissatisfaction in men and women. The purpose of the present study was to explore a moderated mediation model in which the relationships between generalized anxiety and body dissatisfaction (drive for thinness and drive for muscularity) were mediated by social physique anxiety and moderated by gender. Data from 423 U.S. college students (n = 259 women) were analyzed using multigroup structural equation modeling. Generalized anxiety was positively associated with social physique anxiety, and this association was significantly stronger for men than for women. Neither social physique anxiety nor generalized anxiety were associated with drive for muscularity. Social physique anxiety was positively and significantly associated with drive for thinness equally for men and women and emerged as a significant mediator. These results highlight gender differences/similarities in body image and suggest drive for thinness and social physique anxiety may have a common factor of generalized anxiety. When helping clients who suffer with body dissatisfaction, clinicians and researchers may wish to focus on generalized anxiety (and not just social physique anxiety).

Translation and psychometric evaluation of the Experience of Embodiment Scale in a Swedish community sample of young women and men

This report describes a Swedish translation and psychometric evaluation of the Experience of Embodiment Scale (EES; Piran, Teall, & Counsell, 2020), an instrument for assessing a wide range of positive and negative experiences of living in the body. A community sample (N = 545) of Swedish young women (56%) and men (M_age = 24.4; SD = 0.52) completed the Swedish translation of the EES. To explore its construct validity, participants also completed measures of body esteem, disordered eating, internalization of appearance ideals, drive for muscularity and leanness, body mass index, life satisfaction, self-esteem, and psychological distress. Exploratory factor analyses (performed separately for women and men) revealed structures of the Swedish EES similar to those displayed during the development and first evaluations of the scale in North America. However, among men, the factors of agency and sexual desire combined to form one factor. On total scale level, the Swedish EES showed good internal consistency (McDonald's ω = .95 for women; ω = .94 for men), convergent validity, and incremental validity. Overall, the present findings support the Swedish version of the EES and the EES's cross-national use to assess the construct of embodiment, as well as its use among men.

Sociodemographic and psychological characteristics associated with discrepancy between body satisfaction and weight change among adolescents

This study aimed to describe the discrepancy between body satisfaction change and weight change among adolescents following a 2-year school-based intervention, to identify associated sociodemographic factors, and to explore possible associations with perceived health indicators. We used data from a northeastern France representative adolescents sample (14-18 years old) who participated in the PRALIMAP (PRomotion de l'ALIMentation et de l'Activité Physique) study (2006-2009). Weight change was measured by the change in body mass index z-score from the start to the end of the study. Body satisfaction and self-perceived health (anxiety, depression, eating disorder and quality of life) changes were assessed using self-administered questionnaires. Discrepancy between body satisfaction change and weight change was described with cross-tabulations, and subdivided into optimism/pessimism (i.e. positive/negative body satisfaction change compared to weight change). Sociodemographic factors associated with discrepancy were determined by multivariate logistic regression models. Adjusted linear regression models described 2-year change in weight and self-perceived health according to discrepancy. Among the 3279 adolescents included (aged 15.1 ± 0.6 years), the proportion of discrepancy was 74.8% (pessimism = 41.6%; optimism = 33.2%). Discrepancy, especially pessimism, was higher in boys than in girls (OR = 1.44 [1.19; 1.74], p = .0002), and in socially advantaged adolescents (OR = 1.82 [1.20; 2.74], p = .004) than in disadvantage ones. Body satisfaction change was rather in line with anxiety, depression and quality of life changes than weight change. Body satisfaction change should be considered in overweight and obesity prevention interventions alongside body weight change, and could be used as indicator of long-term behavior maintenance. Clinical trials registry and number:ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT01688453).

Psychometric properties of measures of sociocultural influence and internalization of appearance ideals across eight countries

The aim of the current study was to examine the psychometric properties of two well-established measures of sociocultural influence and internalization of the thin/low body fat ideal and muscular ideal. Data from 6272 emerging adults (68.9 % female), aged 18-30 years from Australia, Belgium, Canada, China, Italy, Japan, Spain, and the U.S. were included in this study. Participants completed measures of pressure from mother, fathers, peers, and media, to both increase muscles and lose weight, as well as internalization of the thin/low body fat ideal and muscular ideal. Overall, support for partial invariance was found across the scales. In addition, group level differences were found between countries as well as along demographic factors including gender, age, body mass index, and socioeconomic status. These findings make an important contribution by identifying these scales as useful tools that will support future cross-country and cross-cultural examinations of explanatory models of the development of body image and eating concerns grounded within sociocultural theories.

Prevalence and correlates of body dissatisfaction and disordered eating patterns in Indian youth: The role of media

BACKGROUND

The current study aimed to assess how media internalization and pressure are associated with body mass index (BMI), disordered eating, and body image dissatisfaction in Indian adults and whether there exist gender differences within these variables. The study also aimed to examine whether BMI and media internalization and pressure predict body dissatisfaction and disordered eating.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study utilized self-report measures that were administered to 262 men and women between the ages of 18-25 years (M = 21.64).

RESULTS

The results indicated that BMI was significantly correlated with internalization athlete, body shape dissatisfaction, and disordered eating, but not internalization general or media pressure. Internalization general, internalization athlete, media pressure as well as body shape dissatisfaction, and disordered eating were found to be positively correlated. Men and women did not significantly differ on any variable, but internalization athlete. Overweight and obese men and women were found to be significantly more dissatisfied than underweight and normal-weight men and women; however, the difference was not significant for overweight and obese males and normal-weight and overweight females. In addition, media influence and BMI significantly predicted body dissatisfaction and disordered eating.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study contributes to a novel understanding of body image concerns and risk for clinical eating disorders in Indian youth and potential implications for future research.

'Big boys don't cry': Examining the indirect pathway of masculinity discrepancy stress and muscle dysmorphia symptomatology through dimensions of emotion dysregulation

Prevailing conceptualizations of muscle dysmorphia (MD) have highlighted the role of adherence to stereotypical ideals of masculinity. In addition, the endorsement of masculine norms has been associated with dysfunctional emotional regulation, itself a correlate of body image psychopathology. Building on this, the present study sought to investigate the indirect relationship between masculinity discrepancy stress (i.e., distress related to one's perceived discrepancy in masculinity) and MD symptomatology via different facets of emotion dysregulation among adult men. A sample of 391 university and community men aged 18-50 years completed an online survey measuring the aforementioned constructs. A test of parallel indirect pathways revealed that emotion dysregulation, as a unitary construct, accounted for a substantial proportion (29.3 %) of the total association between masculinity discrepancy stress and MD symptomatology. Further, a significant unique indirect pathway was found through the specific emotion dysregulation facet of lack of access to adaptive emotion regulation strategies. Together, these findings suggest that emotion dysregulation is a particularly important construct to consider in understanding the relationship between perceived discrepancies in masculinity and MD symptomatology.

A review and integrated theoretical model of the development of body image and eating disorders among midlife and aging men

Etiological models of the development of eating disorders among midlife and aging men are lacking. The present study provides a review and integration of existing theoretical frameworks and empirical data relevant to the examination of eating pathology in this population and introduces an integrated model of risk and protective factors for the development of eating disorder symptoms. Several etiological models of eating pathology that have gained some empirical support, or present relevance to this population, are briefly reviewed including sociocultural theory, objectification theory, social identity theory, positive body image and the developmental theory of embodiment, and existential and terror management theory, and finally biologically based theories. In addition, these frameworks were extended to account for developmental and gender-specific factors that may influence the development of eating disorders. An integrated model of risk and protective factors that brings together critical elements of these extended theoretical frameworks is presented, with the goal of guiding and stimulating research in this neglected group.

Body-Related Attentional Bias among Men with High and Low Muscularity Dissatisfaction

Previous studies have found gender differences in body-related attentional bias (AB), with women showing AB towards weight-related body parts. However, few studies have assessed the relationship between body-related AB and muscularity dissatisfaction (MD) in men. This study aimed to assess the presence of muscle-related AB in men, using a combination of a virtual reality (VR) embodiment-based technique and eye-tracking (ET) technology. Twenty men with high MD and 20 with low MD, owned a virtual avatar that had the same silhouette and body mass index as the participant. To analyze the gaze data, muscle-related areas of interest (M-AOIs) and nonmuscle-related areas of interest (NM-AOIs) were defined. The complete fixation time and the number of fixations on each AOI were recorded. Mixed between (group)-within (AOI_condition) analyses of variance showed a statistically significant interaction between group and time (p < 0.05) in both AB measures. Follow-up analyses revealed an AB towards M-AOIs only in men with high MD. Overall, men with high MD spent more time looking and displayed a higher number of fixations on M-AOIs, specifically the chest and shoulders, compared to men with low MD. This study provides new information about the relationship between MD and body-related AB in men. Combining VR with ET technologies presents interesting opportunities in the study of body image in men.

Psychological Pathway from Obesity-Related Stigma to Depression via Internalized Stigma and Self-Esteem among Adolescents in Taiwan

The objective of this research was to examine the pathway from public stigma, to perceived stigma, to depression in adolescents via internalized stigma. Adolescents in grade 7 through 9 from a junior high school in Changhua County in Taiwan completed self-administered surveys from March to July in 2018. Adolescents were asked questions regarding depressive symptoms, obesity-related perceived stigma, and internalized stigma. Structural equation modeling was used to fit the pathway model. The pathway was first analyzed with the full sample and then stratified by actual and perceived weight status. Our final analytic sample consisted of 464 adolescents. The pathway model suggested an acceptable model fit. Perceived weight stigma (PWS) was significantly associated with internalized stigma regardless of actual or self-perceived weight status. Internalized stigma was significantly associated with anxiety for both actual (β = 0.186) and self-perceived nonoverweight (non-OW) participants (β = 0.170) but not for overweight (OW) participants (neither actual nor self-perceived). For OW adolescents, perceived weight stigma was associated with anxiety. However, the internalization process did not exist. It may be that the influence of perceived weight stigma is larger than internalized stigma on anxiety. It may also be that the level of internalization was not yet high enough to result in anxiety.

Psychosocial factors underlying symptoms of muscle dysmorphia in a non-clinical sample of men

Muscle dysmorphia is primarily characterized by an excessive preoccupation that one's body is not muscular or lean enough. Muscle dysmorphia has shown clinical similarities with eating disorders. The present study aims to explore the psychosocial factors underlying muscle dysmorphia symptoms by referring to Stice's dual pathway model (1994), a theoretical model of eating disorders. Three hundred and eighty-six men were recruited to complete an online survey including questionnaires assessing social pressures to reach a muscular body and internalization of the muscular body, drive for muscularity, muscular-enhancing behaviors, negative affect, narcissistic traits, and symptoms of muscle dysmorphia. Path analyses showed that the original model has a good fit, without, however, confirming a significant relationship between the drive for muscularity and negative affect. Thus, social pressure to reach a muscular body and its internalization were associated to a drive for muscularity and then, to muscle dysmorphia symptoms. The drive for muscularity was indirectly related to symptoms of muscle dysmorphia through muscle-enhancing behaviors as well as negative affect (although, only for individuals with higher levels of narcissistic vulnerability). Results supported the adaptation of the Stice's model to explain muscle dysmorphia symptoms and underlined the possible influence of narcissistic vulnerability traits in this condition.

Relationship Quality and Perceived Partner's Body Appreciation Is Related to Women's Own Body Appreciation and Sexual Functioning

Research on body appreciation is limited, especially when examining its relationship to sexual functioning. The aim of this study was to explore the relationship between body appreciation and sexual functioning, while measuring perceived partner's body appreciation and general relationship quality. A sample of 244 women aged 18 to 30 completed measures of sexual functioning, relationship quality, and body image online. General relationship quality and perceived partner's appreciation of one's body predicted levels of sexual functioning. Levels of body appreciation did not predict sexual functioning over and above general relationship quality and perceived partner's appreciation of one's body. This study is the first to demonstrate the significance of general relationship quality and perceived partner's body appreciation in relation to levels of body appreciation and sexual functioning. The findings highlight the importance of understanding body appreciation and its role in buffering the harmful impacts of viewing idealized images within the media.

'I didn't realise I was such a sausage': men's accounts of whole-body scanning, body image, and expected changes in health-related behaviours

OBJECTIVE

Whole-body scanning is now available in stores to assist buyers in choosing well-fitting clothes. This study was designed to investigate men's accounts of scanning, body image and expectations of behaviour change.

DESIGN

Ten men aged 18-39 years without histories of eating disorders or previous experience of whole-body scanning, took part in semi-structured interviews before and after scanning. Data were analysed using inductive thematic analysis.

RESULTS

Pre-scan, men's body ideals were tall, slender and relatively muscular. Post-scan, seven reported looking shorter, fatter, thinner and/or less symmetrical than they hoped; three were pleasantly surprised by the images. Men were interested in scans as an objective view of their bodies and as a 'wake-up call' to motivate healthy behaviours. Five men intended to change their behaviour as a result of scanning, and repeat scanning was seen as a good way to monitor behavioural changes. Participants suggested that scanning may raise body concerns in other men, though downplayed impacts on their own body image.

CONCLUSION

Whole-body scanning may encourage men to exercise and eat more healthily. However, men became more negative about their bodies as a result of seeing their body scans, so scanning needs to be carried out with supervision and support.

Male Weight Trainers' Body Dissatisfaction and Exercise Dependence: Mediating Role of Muscularity Drive

In considering that body image-related perceptions may be associated with weight trainers’ exercise dependence, the purpose of this study was to examine the (a) relationship between body dissatisfaction and drive for muscularity and (b) drive for muscularity as a mediator of the body dissatisfaction–exercise dependence relationship. In sum, 278 male weight trainers ( Mage =29.03 years, SD = 7.83) residing in a southern city of Taiwan completed scales of body dissatisfaction, drive for muscularity, and exercise dependence. Pearson correlation analysis found that body dissatisfaction, drive for muscularity, and exercise dependence were all correlated. Further, the indirect mediation model with bootstrapping found that drive for muscularity partially mediated the body dissatisfaction–exercise dependence relationship (c path: β = .51, SE = 0.07, p=.001: c′ path: β = .13, SE = 0.80, p = .03). We concluded that male weight trainers’ body image-related perceptions influence exercise behavior and suggested that body image-related perceptions might be considered in studying exercise dependence.

Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire (EDE-Q): Norms for a Clinical Sample of Males

Normative data on the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) for a clinical sample of males in the United States are presented. Thirty-eight males completed the EDE-Q at time of admission to an inpatient unit for eating disorders. The majority of males were diagnosed with unspecified eating disorder (73.7%, n=28). Mean age at time of admission was 24.4 years (SD=12.6), mean body mass index at time of admission was 21.5kg/m² (SD=9.5), and mean length of stay was 13.6 days (SD=9.3). Mean scores, standard deviations, and percentile ranks for the global and subscale scores are provided. Although the prevalence of eating disorders remains lower among males compared to females, body dissatisfaction and eating disorder psychopathology are fairly common among males.