Biphasic effects of ethanol on acetylcholine release in the rat prefrontal cortex

Repeated exposure to ethanol alters memory acquisition and neurotransmission parameters in zebrafish brain

Alcohol is widely consumed worldwide and its abuse can cause cognitive dysfunction, affecting memory and learning due to several neurophysiological changes. An imbalance in several neurotransmitters, including the cholinergic and glutamatergic systems, have been implicated in these effects. Zebrafish are sensitive to alcohol, respond to reward stimuli, and tolerate and exhibit withdrawal behaviors. Therefore, we investigated the effects of repetitive exposure to ethanol (REE) and the NMDA receptor antagonist dizocilpine (MK-801) on memory acquisition and glutamatergic and cholinergic neurotransmission. Memory was assessed using the inhibitory avoidance and object recognition tasks. Brain glutamate levels and the activity of Na+-dependent transporters were evaluated as indexes of glutamatergic activity, while acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), enzyme activity were evaluated as indexes of cholinergic activity. Behavioral assessments showed that REE impaired aversive and spatial memory, an effect that MK-801 mimicked. Glutamate levels, but not transporter activity, were significantly lower in the REE group; similarly, REE increased the activity of AChE, but not ChAT, activity. These findings suggest that intermittent exposure to ethanol leads to impairments in zebrafish memory consolidation, and that these effects could be associated with alterations in parameters related to neurotransmission systems mediated by glutamate and acetylcholine. These results provide a better understanding of the neurophysiological and behavioral changes caused by repetitive alcohol use.

Embryonic alcohol exposure alters cholinergic neurotransmission and memory in adult zebrafish

Alcohol is the most consumed addictive substance worldwide that elicits multiple health problems. Consumption of alcoholic beverages by pregnant women is of great concern because pre-natal exposure can trigger fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD). This disorder can significantly change the embryo's normal development, mainly by affecting the central nervous system (CNS), leading to neurobehavioral consequences that persist until adulthood. Among the harmful effects of FASD, the most reported consequences are cognitive and behavioral impairments. Alcohol interferes with multiple pathways in the brain, affecting memory by impairing neurotransmitter systems, increasing the rate of oxidative stress, or even activating neuroinflammation. Here, we aimed to evaluate the deleterious effects of alcohol on the cholinergic signaling and memory in a FASD zebrafish model, using inhibitory avoidance and novel object recognition tests. Four months after the embryonic exposure to ethanol, the behavioral tests indicated that ethanol impairs memory. While both ethanol concentrations tested (0.5 % and 1 %) disrupted memory acquisition in the inhibitory avoidance test, 1 % ethanol impaired memory in the object recognition test. Regarding the cholinergic system, 0.5 % ethanol decreased ChAT and AChE activities, but the relative gene expression did not change. Overall, we demonstrated that FASD model in zebrafish impairs memory in adult individuals, corroborating the memory impairment associated with embryonic exposure to ethanol. In addition, the cholinergic system was also affected, possibly showing a relation with the cognitive impairment observed.

Neurochemical and Behavioral Consequences of Ethanol and/or Caffeine Exposure: Effects in Zebrafish and Rodents

Zebrafish are increasingly being utilized to model the behavioral and neurochemical effects of pharmaceuticals and, more recently, pharmaceutical interactions. Zebrafish models of stress establish that both caffeine and ethanol influence anxiety, though few studies have implemented co-administration to assess the interaction of anxiety and reward-seeking. Caffeine exposure in zebrafish is teratogenic, causing developmental abnormalities in the cardiovascular, neuromuscular, and nervous systems of embryos and larvae. Ethanol is also a teratogen and, as an anxiolytic substance, may be able to offset the anxiogenic effects of caffeine. Co-exposure to caffeine and alcohol impacts neuroanatomy and behavior in adolescent animal models, suggesting stimulant substances may moderate the impact of alcohol on neural circuit development. Here, we review the literature describing neuropharmacological and behavioral consequences of caffeine and/or alcohol exposure in the zebrafish model, focusing on neurochemistry, locomotor effects, and behavioral assessments of stress/anxiety as reported in adolescent/juvenile and adult animals. The purpose of this review is twofold: (1) describe the work in zebrafish documenting the effects of ethanol and/or caffeine exposure and (2) compare these zebrafish studies with comparable experiments in rodents. We focus on specific neurochemical pathways (dopamine, serotonin, adenosine, GABA, adenosine), anxiety-type behaviors (assessed with novel tank, thigmotaxis, shoaling), and locomotor changes resulting from both individual and co-exposure. We compare findings in zebrafish with those in rodent models, revealing similarities across species and identifying conservation of mechanisms that potentially reinforce co-addiction.

The Effects of Low-Risk Drinking on Neurocognition Among Older Persons Living With HIV as Compared to Those Without HIV

BACKGROUND

Heavy alcohol use negatively impacts neurocognition, but some studies report neurocognitive benefits associated with light drinking among HIV-seronegative (HIV-) older persons, suggesting a nonlinear or an inverted "J-shaped" association of alcohol consumption on neurocognition. Alcohol use is common among people with HIV (PWH); however, the association between recent "low-risk" alcohol consumption and neurocognition among PWH is poorly understood.

METHODS

Participants included 310 PWH and 89 HIV- older (≥50 years) adults who reported alcohol abstinence or "low-risk" drinking, defined per the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism criteria (i.e., ≥15 drinks/wk or ≥5 drinks/d for men; ≥8 drinks/wk or ≥4 drinks/d for women). Neurocognition was measured using global and domain-specific demographically corrected T-scores. Multiple linear regressions examined the interaction between total drinks in the last 30 days (linear and quadratic terms) and HIV serostatus on neurocognition, covarying for age, sex, lifetime major depressive disorder, lifetime nonalcohol substance use disorders, and lifetime alcohol use disorder.

RESULTS

Total drinks consumed in the last 30 days did not differ by HIV serostatus (p = 0.202). Among HIV- older adults, quadratic effects of total drinks on neurocognition occurred such that optimal neurocognition (i.e., global function, executive function, learning, delayed recall, and motor skills) was detected at intermediate levels of "low-risk" drinking (~20 to 40 drinks), with poorer performance at the lower and higher ranges of "low-risk" consumption. In PWH, total drinks did not exhibit linear or quadratic associations with neurocognition.

CONCLUSIONS

In HIV- "low-risk" drinkers, intermediate levels of recent alcohol use were associated with better neurocognition, consistent with the inverted J-shaped association. The same nonlinear effect of recent alcohol consumption on neurocognition was absent in PWH, indicating there may be no beneficial or deleterious effects of low-risk alcohol consumption on neurocognition among PWH. Future research is warranted to examine associations between alcohol consumption and HIV-related biopsychosocial disadvantages that may supersede the neurocognitive benefits of alcohol.

Methylphenidate and alcohol effects on flash-evoked potentials, body temperature, and behavior in Long-Evans rats

Methylphenidate (MPD) is a psychostimulant used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Most adult ADHD patients use ethanol in combination with MPD. This research examined the effects of MPD and ethanol on flash-evoked potentials (FEPs; cortical responses frequently used to assess neural activity and sensory processing) recorded from the visual cortex (VC) and superior colliculus (SC; a structure involved in attention and orientation) of chronically implanted male Long-Evans rats, and on body temperature and open field behavior. For one group of rats, either saline or ethanol (2.0 g/kg) was given 5 min prior to either saline or MPD (2.9 mg/kg). FEPs were recorded 10 and 20 min later. In the VC, ethanol decreased amplitudes of several components, but increased P2. MPD increased N3, but decreased P3 and P4. Ethanol increased the latency of several components. In the SC, ethanol decreased all three components, while MPD increased P3. Ethanol increased latency of all components. During FEP testing, ethanol decreased body movement while MPD increased movement. In the open field, line crossings were increased but rearings were decreased by ethanol. Both ethanol and MPD produced hypothermia. A second group of rats was given MPD at 11.6 mg/kg. Ethanol decreased several VC amplitudes, but increased P2. MPD increased N3 amplitude but decreased amplitude for other components. MPD also counteracted the effect of ethanol on the amplitude of P2 and N3. Both ethanol and MPD increased the latency of several components. In the SC, ethanol decreased all component amplitudes, while MPD increased P3 but decreased N4. Ethanol increased all component latencies, while MPD increased latency for two components. During FEP testing, ethanol decreased body movement while MPD increased movement. In the open field, line crossings were increased by ethanol and MPD. Rearings were eliminated by ethanol in the open field but increased by MPD, and MPD counteracted the effect of ethanol on rearings. Both ethanol and MPD produced hypothermia. Some of these results might help explain why users take MPD and ethanol in combination in order to enable consuming larger amounts of alcohol.

Sex differences in the association of alcohol with cognitive decline and brain pathology in a cohort of octogenarians

RATIONALE

The beneficial effects of moderate alcohol may differ in aging men versus women.

OBJECTIVES

Cognitive and functional decline and neuropathology were investigated in a cohort of aging men and women with diverse alcohol histories.

METHODS

Non-demented (Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR) of ≤ 0.5 and a Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) score of > 24), autonomously living participants were tracked in longitudinal aging studies to examine self-report and objective tests of rates of decline in a cohort (n = 486) of octogenarians. Neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs; Braak stage) and neuritic plaques (NPs) were staged at autopsy in a subset of participants (n = 149) using current standard neuropathologic diagnostic criteria.

RESULTS

Moderate drinking men had an attenuated rate of decline compared to rare/never drinkers and women on the MMSE and CDR sum of boxes. In contrast, moderate drinking women had a reduced rate of decline only in the Logical Memory Delayed Recall Test (LMDR) compared to rare/never drinkers and men. Moderate alcohol consumption was associated with a reduction in the incidence of advanced (stages 5-6) Braak NFT stage in men (p < 0.05), with no effect in women.

CONCLUSIONS

In this cohort, men experienced a broader range of beneficial effects associated with alcohol. Alcohol's effects may differ in men and women in important ways that suggest a narrower beneficial window.

Cholinesterase inhibitors, donepezil and rivastigmine, attenuate spatial memory and cognitive flexibility impairment induced by acute ethanol in the Barnes maze task in rats

Central cholinergic dysfunction contributes to acute spatial memory deficits produced by ethanol administration. Donepezil and rivastigmine elevate acetylcholine levels in the synaptic cleft through the inhibition of cholinesterases—enzymes involved in acetylcholine degradation. The aim of our study was to reveal whether donepezil (acetylcholinesterase inhibitor) and rivastigmine (also butyrylcholinesterase inhibitor) attenuate spatial memory impairment as induced by acute ethanol administration in the Barnes maze task (primary latency and number of errors in finding the escape box) in rats. Additionally, we compared the influence of these drugs on ethanol-disturbed memory. In the first experiment, the dose of ethanol (1.75 g/kg, i.p.) was selected that impaired spatial memory, but did not induce motor impairment. Next, we studied the influence of donepezil (1 and 3 mg/kg, i.p.), as well as rivastigmine (0.5 and 1 mg/kg, i.p.), given either before the probe trial or the reversal learning on ethanol-induced memory impairment. Our study demonstrated that these drugs, when given before the probe trial, were equally effective in attenuating ethanol-induced impairment in both test situations, whereas rivastigmine, at both doses (0.5 and 1 mg/kg, i.p.), and donepezil only at a higher dose (3 mg/kg, i.p.) given prior the reversal learning, attenuated the ethanol-induced impairment in cognitive flexibility. Thus, rivastigmine appears to exert more beneficial effect than donepezil in reversing ethanol-induced cognitive impairments—probably due to its wider spectrum of activity. In conclusion, the ethanol-induced spatial memory impairment may be attenuated by pharmacological manipulation of central cholinergic neurotransmission.

The risk of male adult alcohol dependence: The role of the adverse childhood experiences and ecological executive function

OBJECTIVE

To explore the association between male adult alcohol dependence and their adverse childhood experiences as well as ecological executive function.

METHODS

The questionnaires of Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Adult Version (BRIEF-A) were adopted for the assessments of 102 alcohol dependent patients who were diagnosed according to the criteria defined by the International Classification of diseases and related health problems (ICD-10) and 106 healthy volunteers, and the differences between patients and healthy volunteers were analyzed.

RESULTS

The percentage of adverse childhood experiences in alcohol dependent patients was significantly higher than that in healthy volunteers (χ(2)=17.28, P<0.01); and the incidences of emotional abuse, physical neglect, violence witness, and substance abuse were significantly higher in alcohol dependent patients than those in healthy volunteers (χ(2)=4.59, 4.46, 10.51, and 44.09 respectively; P<0.05). The ecological executive function analysis showed that the BRIEF total score and scores for each item were all significantly higher in alcohol dependent patients than those of healthy volunteers (P<0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

The adult alcohol dependence was associated with their adverse childhood experiences and ecological executive function. Then physical neglect and substance abuse of parents in childhood, and emotional control defect in the ecological executive function showed strong association with adult alcohol dependence.

Rodent models and mechanisms of voluntary binge-like ethanol consumption: Examples, opportunities, and strategies for preclinical research

Binge ethanol consumption has widespread negative consequences for global public health. Rodent models offer exceptional power to explore the neurobiology underlying and affected by binge-like drinking as well as target potential prevention, intervention, and treatment strategies. An important characteristic of these models is their ability to consistently produce pharmacologically-relevant blood ethanol concentration. This review examines the current available rodent models of voluntary, pre-dependent binge-like ethanol consumption and their utility in various research strategies. Studies have demonstrated that a diverse array of neurotransmitters regulate binge-like drinking, resembling some findings from other drinking models. Furthermore, repeated binge-like drinking recruits neuroadaptive mechanisms in mesolimbocortical reward circuitry. New opportunities that these models offer in the current context of mechanistic research are also discussed.

Modulation of neural circuit actvity by ethanol in basolateral amygdala

Ethanol actions in the amygdala formation may underlie in part the reinforcing effects of ethanol consumption. Previously a physiological phenomenon in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) that is dependent on neuronal network activity, compound postsynaptic potentials (cPSPs) were characterized. Effects of acute ethanol application on the frequency of cPSPs were subsequently investigated. Whole cell patch clamp recordings were performed from identified projection neurons in a rat brain slice preparation containing the amygdala formation. Acute ethanol exposure had complex effects on cPSP frequency, with both increases and decreases dependent on concentration, duration of exposure and age of the animal. Ethanol produces complex biphasic effects on synaptically-driven network activity in the BLA. These findings may relate to subjective effects of ethanol on arousal and anxiolysis in humans.

Changes in the α4β2* nicotinic acetylcholine system during chronic controlled alcohol exposure in nonhuman primates

BACKGROUND

The precise nature of modifications to the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) system in response to chronic ethanol exposure is poorly understood. The present work used PET imaging to assay α4β2* nAChR binding levels of eight rhesus monkeys before and during controlled chronic ethanol intake.

METHODS

[(18)F]Nifene PET scans were conducted prior to alcohol exposure, and then again after at least 8 months controlled ethanol exposure, including 6 months at 1.5 g/kg/day following a dose escalation period. Receptor binding levels were quantified with binding potentials (BPND) using the cerebellum as a reference region. Alcohol self-administration was assessed as average daily alcohol intake during a 2 month free drinking period immediately following controlled alcohol.

RESULTS

Significant decreases in α4β2* nAChR binding were observed in both frontal and insular cortex in response to chronic ethanol exposure. During chronic alcohol exposure, BPND in the lateral geniculate region correlated positively with the amount of alcohol consumed during free drinking.

CONCLUSIONS

The observed decreases in nAChR availability following chronic alcohol consumption suggest alterations to this receptor system in response to repeated alcohol administration, making this an important target for further study in alcohol abuse and alcohol and nicotine codependence.

Interactions between mecamylamine and alcohol in Long-Evans rats: flash-evoked potentials, body temperature, behavior, and blood alcohol concentration

Mecamylamine, a noncompetitive antagonist of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, has many potential clinical applications, including treating alcohol dependency. However, little is known about the combined effects of mecamylamine and alcohol on visual system electrophysiology. We examined the separate and combined effects of mecamylamine (4.0mg/kg, ip) and alcohol (2.0 g/kg, ip) on flash-evoked potentials (FEPs) recorded from the visual cortex (VC) and superior colliculus (SC) of chronically implanted adult male Long-Evans rats. On separate days, either saline or mecamylamine was given 10 min prior to either saline or ethanol. FEPs were recorded 15 and 30 min after the second injection. In the VC, alcohol significantly decreased the amplitudes of components P23, N29, N39, P89, N143, and P237, but increased P46. N63 amplitude was not significantly altered. In contrast, mecamylamine increased the amplitude of P23, P46, and N63, but reduced the amplitude of N29 and P237. The combination of mecamylamine and alcohol resulted in amplitudes very similar to alcohol alone for components P23, N29, N63, P89, N143, and P237. However, mecamylamine pretreatment reduced the effects of alcohol on components N39 and P46. In the SC, FEP component amplitudes were generally decreased by alcohol but not significantly altered by mecamylamine. Mecamylamine pretreatment did not significantly alter the effects of alcohol on SC amplitudes. Latencies of nearly all components in both structures were significantly increased by all drug treatments, with the greatest increase produced by the combination treatment. Hypothermia was also produced by all drug treatments, with the greatest hypothermia (2.25 °C) produced by the combination treatment, most likely accounting for much of the drug-induced increase in latencies. All drug treatments reduced movement during FEP testing, but later in an open field alcohol increased ambulation while mecamylamine reduced movement. Separate groups of experimentally naïve adult male Holtzman albino and Long-Evans hooded rats were given (ip) either alcohol or mecamylamine plus alcohol. Tail vein samples were taken 30 min later. For both rat strains, blood alcohol concentration in the mecamylamine pretreatment group was significantly less at this time interval by about 50-60 mg/dL, suggesting a mechanism whereby mecamylamine can mitigate some of the acute effects of alcohol (e.g., on VC components N39 and P46).

Alcohol consumption in mild cognitive impairment and dementia: harmful or neuroprotective?

OBJECTIVE

In several longitudinal studies, light-to-moderate drinking of alcoholic beverages has been proposed as being protective against the development of age-related changes in cognitive function, predementia syndromes, and cognitive decline of degenerative (Alzheimer's disease, AD) or vascular origin (vascular dementia). However, contrasting findings also exist.

METHOD

The English literature published in this area before September 2011 was evaluated, and information relating to the various factors that may impact upon the relationship between alcohol consumption and dementia or predementia syndromes is presented in the succeeding texts.

RESULTS

Light-to-moderate alcohol consumption may be associated with a reduced risk of incident overall dementia and AD; however, protective benefits afforded to vascular dementia, cognitive decline, and predementia syndromes are less clear. The equivocal findings may relate to many of the studies being limited to cross-sectional designs, restrictions by age or gender, or incomplete ascertainment. Different outcomes, beverages, drinking patterns, and study follow-up periods or possible interactions with other lifestyle-related (e.g., smoking) or genetic factors (e.g., apolipoprotein E gene variation) may all contribute to the variability of findings.

CONCLUSION

Protective effects of moderate alcohol consumption against cognitive decline are suggested to be more likely in the absence of the AD-associated apolipoprotein E ε4 allele and where wine is the beverage. At present, there is no indication that light-to-moderate alcohol drinking would be harmful to cognition and dementia, and attempts to define what might be deemed beneficial levels of alcohol intake in terms of cognitive performance would be highly problematic and contentious.

Alcohol and cognition in the elderly: a review

Consumption of large amounts of alcohol is known to have negative effects, but consumption in smaller amounts may be protective. The effect of alcohol may be greater in the elderly than in younger adults, particularly with regard to cognition. However, the drinking pattern that will provide optimal protection against dementia and cognitive decline in the elderly has not been systematically investigated. The present paper is a critical review of research on the effect of alcohol on cognitive function and dementia in the elderly. Studies published from 1971 to 2011 related to alcohol and cognition in the elderly were reviewed using a PubMed search. Alcohol may have both a neurotoxic and neuroprotective effect. Longitudinal and brain imaging studies in the elderly show that excessive alcohol consumption may increase the risk of cognitive dysfunction and dementia, but low to moderate alcohol intake may protect against cognitive decline and dementia and provide cardiovascular benefits. Evidence suggesting that low to moderate alcohol consumption in the elderly protects against cognitive decline and dementia exists; however, because of varying methodology and a lack of standardized definitions, these findings should be interpreted with caution. It is important to conduct more, well-designed studies to identify the alcohol drinking pattern that will optimally protect the elderly against cognitive decline and dementia.

Diet and Alzheimer's disease risk factors or prevention: the current evidence

Preventing or postponing the onset of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and delaying or slowing its progression would lead to a consequent improvement of health status and quality of life in older age. Elevated saturated fatty acids could have negative effects on age-related cognitive decline and mild cognitive impairment (MCI). Furthermore, at present, epidemiological evidence suggests a possible association between fish consumption, monounsaturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA; in particular, n-3 PUFA) and a reduced risk of cognitive decline and dementia. Poorer cognitive function and an increased risk of vascular dementia (VaD) were found to be associated with a lower consumption of milk or dairy products. However, the consumption of whole-fat dairy products may be associated with cognitive decline in the elderly. Light-to-moderate alcohol use may be associated with a reduced risk of incident dementia and AD, while for VaD, cognitive decline and predementia syndromes, the current evidence is only suggestive of a protective effect. The limited epidemiological evidence available on fruit and vegetable consumption and cognition generally supports a protective role of these macronutrients against cognitive decline, dementia and AD. Only recently, higher adherence to a Mediterranean-type diet was associated with decreased cognitive decline, although the Mediterranean diet (MeDi) combines several foods, micro- and macro-nutrients already separately proposed as potential protective factors against dementia and predementia syndromes. In fact, recent prospective studies provided evidence that higher adherence to a Mediterranean-type diet could be associated with slower cognitive decline, reduced risk of progression from MCI to AD, reduced risk of AD and a decreased all-cause mortality in AD patients. These findings suggested that adherence to the MeDi may affect not only the risk of AD, but also of predementia syndromes and their progression to overt dementia. Based on the current evidence concerning these factors, no definitive dietary recommendations are possible. However, following dietary advice for lowering the risk of cardiovascular and metabolic disorders, high levels of consumption of fats from fish, vegetable oils, nonstarchy vegetables, low glycemic index fruits and a diet low in foods with added sugars and with moderate wine intake should be encouraged. Hopefully this will open new opportunities for the prevention and management of dementia and AD.

Similarities in hypothalamic and mesocorticolimbic circuits regulating the overconsumption of food and alcohol

Historically, studies of food intake regulation started with the hypothalamus and gradually expanded to mesocorticolimbic regions, while studies of drug use began with mesocorticolimbic regions and now include the hypothalamus. As research on ingestive behavior has progressed, it has uncovered more and more similarities between the regulation of palatable food and drug intake. It has also identified specific neurochemicals involved in palatable food and drug intake. Hypothalamic orexigenic neurochemicals specifically involved in controlling fat ingestion, including galanin, enkephalin, orexin and melanin-concentrating hormone, show positive feedback with this macronutrient, with these peptides both increasing fat intake and being further stimulated by its intake. This positive relationship offers some explanation for why foods high in fat are so often overconsumed. Research in Bart Hoebel's laboratory in conjunction with our own has shown that consumption of ethanol, a drug of abuse that also contains calories, is similarly driven by these neurochemical systems involved in fat intake, consistent with evidence closely relating fat and ethanol consumption. Both fat and ethanol intake are also regulated by dopamine and acetylcholine acting in mesocorticolimbic nuclei. This close relationship of fat and ethanol is likely driven in part by circulating lipids, which are increased by fat and ethanol intake, known to increase expression and levels of the neurochemicals, and found to promote further intake of fat and ethanol. Compellingly, recent studies suggest that these systems may already be dysregulated in animals prone to consuming excess fat or ethanol, even before they have ever been exposed to these substances. Further understanding of these systems involved in consummatory behavior will allow researchers to develop effective therapies for the treatment of overeating as well as drug abuse.

Ethanol-induced modulation of synaptic output from the dorsolateral striatum in rat is regulated by cholinergic interneurons

The striatum is the largest input nucleus to the basal ganglia and associated with reward-based behavior. We assessed whether acute ethanol (EtOH) exposure could modulate synaptic efficacy in the dorsolateral striatum of juvenile Wistar rats. Since acute EtOH administration can both increase and decrease the probability of release of different neurotransmitters from synaptic terminals, we used field potential recordings to evaluate the net effect of EtOH on striatal output. We showed that 50mM EtOH but not 20, 80 or 100mM, depresses population spike (PS) amplitude in the dorsolateral striatum. This depression of synaptic output is insensitive to the N-methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor inhibitor DL-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (AP-5, 50μM), but is blocked in slices treated with glycine receptor antagonists (strychnine, 1μM; PMBA, 50μM), nicotinic acetylcholine receptor antagonists (mecamylamine, 10μM; methyllycaconitine citrate (MLA), 40nM), or GABA(A) receptor inhibitors (picrotoxin, 100μM; bicuculline, 2μM, 20μM). A long-term facilitation of synaptic output, which is more pronounced in slices from adult Wistar rats, is detected following EtOH washout (50, 80, 100mM). This long-term enhancement of PS amplitude is regulated by cholinergic interneurons and completely blocked by mecamylamine, MLA or the non-selective muscarinic antagonist scopolamine (10μM). Administration of 100mM EtOH significantly depresses PS amplitude in scopolamine-treated slices, suggesting that EtOH exerts dual actions on striatal output that are initiated instantly upon drug wash-on. In conclusion, EtOH modulates striatal microcircuitry and neurotransmission in a way that could be of importance for understanding the intoxicating properties as well as the acute reward sensation of EtOH.

Systemic administration of arecoline reduces ethanol-induced sleeping through activation of central muscarinic receptor in mice

BACKGROUND

Epidemiological evidence of co-use of alcohol and areca nuts suggests a potential central interaction between arecoline, a major alkaloid of areca and a muscarinic receptor agonist, and ethanol. Moreover, the central cholinergic system plays an important role in the depressant action of ethanol and barbiturates. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of arecoline on pentobarbital- and ethanol-induced hypnosis in mice.

METHODS

Male ICR mice were tested for locomotor activity following acute systemic administration of ethanol alone, arecoline alone, or ethanol plus arecoline. For the loss of the righting reflex (LORR) induced by pentobarbital and ethanol, sleep latency and sleeping duration were evaluated in mice treated with arecoline alone or the combination of arecoline and scopolamine or methscopolamine.

RESULTS

Ethanol (1.0 to 3.0 g/kg, i.p.) reduced locomotor activity significantly and a declining trend was observed after treatment with arecoline (0.25 to 1.0 mg/kg, i.p.), but there were no synergistic effects of ethanol and arecoline on locomotor activity. The experiments on LORR demonstrated that arecoline (0.125 to 1.0 mg/kg, s.c.) shortened the duration of sleeping induced by ethanol (4.0 g/kg, i.p.), but not pentobarbital (45 mg/kg, i.p.). In addition, alterations of sleep latency were not obvious in both pentobarbital- and ethanol-induced LORR. Statistical analyses revealed that scopolamine (centrally acting), but not methscopolamine (peripherally acting), could antagonize the effect of arecoline on the duration of ethanol-induced LORR in mice.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that central muscarinic receptor is a pharmacological target for the action of arecoline to modulate ethanol-induced hypnosis.

Baclofen does not counteract the acute effects of ethanol on flash-evoked potentials in Long-Evans rats

This experiment examined the separate and combined effects of baclofen (5.0 mg/kg, i.p.), a GABA B receptor agonist, and ethanol (2.0 g/kg, i.p.) on flash-evoked potentials (FEPs) recorded from both the visual cortex and superior colliculus (SC) of chronically implanted male Long-Evans rats. In the visual cortex, ethanol significantly decreased the amplitude of positive component P87, but increased P37 and P47. Other component amplitudes were not significantly altered. In contrast, baclofen reduced the amplitude of negative component N31 to such an extent that it became positive. Although P47 was also reduced by baclofen, the amplitude of most other components was increased. Only P24 and P87 were unchanged by baclofen. The combination of baclofen and ethanol resulted in amplitudes very similar to ethanol alone for secondary components P47, N62, and P87, but very similar to baclofen alone for primary component N31 and late components N147 and P230. In the SC, component amplitudes were generally decreased by ethanol, baclofen, and the combination treatment. Latencies of most components in both structures were increased by the drug treatments. Each drug treatment produced significant hypothermia. Locomotor behavior was also altered. These results demonstrate: (1) pharmacological differences between the primary and late components versus the secondary components of the cortical FEP, (2) that baclofen does not counteract significant effects of ethanol on cortical or collicular component amplitudes, and (3) that baclofen enhances N147-P230 amplitude, suggesting reduced cortical arousal.

Does Scopolamine Block the Development of Ethanol-Induced Behavioral Sensitization?

BACKGROUND

The cholinergic system is important in learning processes and probably influences behavioral sensitization to drugs. This study examined the effects of scopolamine (scop), a muscarinic antagonist, on the behavioral sensitization to ethanol (EtOH) stimulant effect in mice.

METHODS

In experiments 1 and 2, male Swiss albino mice received saline or 1.0 mg/kg scop (s.c.) + saline or EtOH (i.p). (1.0 g/kg in experiment 1 and 2.2 g/kg in experiment 2), for 21 days. Locomotor activity (LA) was recorded once a week, being the treatment withdrawn for 7 days after the last test. On the 28th day (challenge 1), they were evaluated under saline or EtOH. In experiment 2, 3 days after the first challenge, they were tested in an open-field arena, under saline or 2.2 g/kg EtOH. Three days after this, mice were tested under saline or 1.0 mg/kg scop in the activity cages.

RESULTS

Acutely, EtOH and scop did not alter the LA. However, when both drugs were coadministered, a significant reduction was observed. During the treatment, tolerance to the depressor effect was developed and behavioral sensitization observed only in the saline + 2.2 EtOH group. In challenge 1, the groups scop + 1.0 EtOH, saline + 2.2 EtOH, and scop + 2.2 EtOH presented higher levels of LA than that of the control groups. However, in challenge 2, conducted in a different setting, no differences between groups were observed. In challenge 3, when the animals received scop, both groups pretreated with 2.2 g/kg EtOH (saline + 2.2 EtOH and scop + 2.2 EtOH groups) presented higher levels of activity suggesting an interaction between EtOH and scop.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the coadministration of scopolamine had impaired the observation of sensitization on the 21st day test, when the group scop + EtOH was challenged with scop + EtOH, it seems that the scop just masked the observation, but did not impair the development, of the EtOH-sensitization observed in the challenge with EtOH alone. The higher levels of LA in groups pretreated with EtOH only in the cages but not in the open-field arena confirm the importance of environmental factors, such as the context of drug administration and testing.

Alcohol drinking and cognitive functions: findings from the Cardiovascular Risk Factors Aging and Dementia (CAIDE) Study

BACKGROUND

Moderate alcohol drinking is suggested to be beneficial for cognitive functions, but the results of previous studies have varied greatly. Little is known about the effects of midlife alcohol drinking on the cognitive functions later in life.

METHODS

Participants were derived from random, population-based samples studied in Eastern Finland in 1972, 1977, 1982, or 1987. A total of 1,341 participants were reexamined in 1998, after an average follow-up period of 21 years, at ages 65-79 years.

RESULTS

The participants who did not drink alcohol at midlife had a poorer performance in episodic memory, psychomotor speed, and executive function in late life as compared with infrequent and frequent drinkers, adjusted for sociodemographic and vascular factors. Also late-life nondrinkers had poorer psychomotor speed and executive function. These findings were evident especially among nonsmokers. Further, no interactions between apolipoprotein E4 and alcohol or sex and alcohol were found.

CONCLUSIONS

Alcohol drinking both at midlife and later is favorably related to the function in several cognitive domains, including episodic memory, psychomotor speed, and executive function, in late life. However, it is not clear whether the association is causal, what is the possible mechanism, and what would be a safe limit of drinking for the best cognitive function.

Vitamin A deficiency affects neither frontocortical acetylcholine nor working memory

Vitamin A is quite often implicated in supporting acetylcholine synthesis. Choline acetyltransferase, the enzyme promoting acetylcholine synthesis, and the vesicular acetylcholine transporter are modulated by retinoic acid treatment. This paper illustrates the effect of vitamin A deprivation on acetylcholine content in the hippocampus, striatum and prefrontal cortex of rats, brain regions containing retinoid acid receptors. The effect of vitamin A deprivation on working memory was also examined. The results obtained demonstrate a decrease in acetylcholine content following 12 weeks vitamin A deprivation in the hippocampus and striatum, but not in prefrontal cortex. Working memory performance assessed in the same rats was unaffected, suggesting a higher susceptibility of hippocampus and striatum to vitamin A deficiency, in terms of cholinergic transmission.

Neuroadaptations of Cdk5 in cholinergic interneurons of the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex of inbred alcohol-preferring rats following voluntary alcohol drinking

BACKGROUND

Neurobiological studies have identified brain areas and related molecular mechanisms involved in alcohol abuse and dependence. Specific cell types in these brain areas and their role in alcohol-related behaviors, however, have not yet been identified. This study examined the involvement of cholinergic cells in inbred alcohol-preferring rats following 1 month of alcohol drinking. Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) immunoreactivity (IR), a marker of neuronal plasticity, was examined in cholinergic neurons of the nucleus accumbens (NuAcc) and prefrontal cortex (PFC) and other brain areas implicated in alcohol drinking, using dual immunocytochemical (ICC) procedures. Single Cdk5 IR was also examined in several brain areas implicated in alcohol drinking.

METHODS

The experimental group self-administered alcohol using a 2-bottle-choice test paradigm with unlimited access to 10% (v/v) alcohol and water for 23 h/d for 1 month. An average of 6 g/kg alcohol was consumed daily. Control animals received identical treatment, except that both bottles contained water. Rats were perfused and brain sections were processed for ICC procedures.

RESULTS

Alcohol drinking resulted in a 51% increase in Cdk5 IR cholinergic interneurons in the shell NuAcc, while in the PFC there was a 51% decrease in the percent of Cdk5 IR cholinergic interneurons in the infralimbic region and a 46% decrease in Cdk5 IR cholinergic interneurons in the prelimbic region. Additionally, single Cdk5 IR revealed a 42% increase in the central nucleus of the amygdala (CNA).

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified Cdk5 neuroadaptation in cholinergic interneurons of the NuAcc and PFC and in other neurons of the CNA following 1 month of alcohol drinking. These findings contribute to our understanding of the cellular and molecular basis of alcohol drinking and toward the development of improved region and cell-specific pharmacotherapeutic and behavioral treatment programs for alcohol abuse and alcoholism.

Nicotine-ethanol interactions in flash-evoked potentials and behavior of Long-Evans rats

Although nicotine and ethanol are often used together, little is known about their combined effects on visual system electrophysiology. This experiment examined the separate and combined effects of nicotine and ethanol on flash-evoked potentials (FEPs) recorded from both the visual cortex (VC) and superior colliculus (SC) of chronically implanted male Long-Evans rats. There were four treatment conditions administered on separate days: either saline or ethanol (2.0 g/kg, i.p.) was given 10 min before either saline or nicotine (1.0 mg/kg, s.c.). FEPs were recorded at 5, 20, and 40 min following the second injection. In the VC, ethanol significantly decreased the amplitude of most components, but increased P46. Peaks P22 and N53 were unchanged. Nicotine enhanced most component amplitudes, but decreased N29 and P234, while P22 and N139 were unchanged. In the SC, ethanol depressed the amplitude of all components studied. In contrast, nicotine significantly depressed only P27 and N48. Latencies of most components in both structures were increased by ethanol, nicotine, and the combination treatment, although a nicotine-induced enhancement of the effects of ethanol on latencies was not typically observed. Each drug treatment also produced significant hypothermia, with the combination treatment resulting in the greatest hypothermia. Ethanol, either alone or in combination with nicotine, significantly reduced body movements during the FEP recording sessions. In subsequent open-field observations, ethanol, but not nicotine, significantly increased the number of squares crossed, while the combination treatment produced the greatest increase in movement. Nicotine significantly increased rearing behavior, but both ethanol and the combination treatment eliminated rearings. Overall, data suggesting that nicotine can counteract some of the effects of ethanol was demonstrated in varying degrees in the amplitude of VC components N39, P46, N53, N65, and P88, the latency of VC component N53, the amplitude of SC component N59, and the latency of SC components N48 and N54. In contrast, a nicotine-induced enhancement of the effects of ethanol was found for only the latency of VC components N39, P88, and P234, body temperature, and open-field ambulation.

Voluntary ethanol intake increases extracellular acetylcholine levels in the ventral tegmental area in the rat

AIMS

Concurrent use of ethanol and nicotine (tobacco) is often seen in human beings. In previous animal experiments, we have demonstrated that nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, especially alpha-conotoxin MII and mecamylamine sensitive receptors located in the ventral tegmental area may be involved in the stimulatory, dopamine enhancing, and rewarding effects of ethanol in rodents. Ethanol may exert these effects via direct interaction with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and/or indirectly via enhancement of extracellular acetylcholine levels in the ventral tegmental area. The present experiments investigated a possible indirect effect of ethanol in stimulating the mesoaccumbal dopamine system.

METHODS

Neurochemical effects of voluntary ethanol intake on extracellular ventral tegmental acetylcholine and accumbal dopamine levels were measured by means of in vivo microdialysis with a two-probe approach in freely moving rats.

RESULTS

Obtained data indicate that voluntary ethanol intake ( approximately 0.7 g/kg/h) leads to an increase of extracellular acetylcholine levels in the ventral tegmental area, and an almost time-locked increase of dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens. A positive correlation between the ventral tegmental acetylcholine levels and ethanol intake as well as preference was also observed.

CONCLUSION

The present results suggest that voluntary ethanol intake enhances extracellular ventral tegmental acetylcholine that may interact with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, possibly alpha-conotoxin MII sensitive receptors, localized in the ventral tegmental area that subsequently may stimulate dopamine overflow in the nucleus accumbens.

Inhibition of nitric oxide release in vivo by ethanol

OBJECTIVE

Previous studies indicate that the nitric oxide (NO(.)) pathway is involved in the acute or chronic effects of ethanol on the central nervous system. However, direct evidence for the effect of ethanol on NO(.) production in vivo is lacking, and it is not clear whether it is inhibition or stimulation of the NO(.) pathway that contributes to the behavioral effects of ethanol. Herein the release of NO(.) in the rat striatum in vivo in response to NMDA receptor activation--the dominant mechanism controlling NO(.) formation-has been investigated after systemic or local injections of ethanol.

METHODS

NMDA-induced release of authentic NO(.) was measured directly in the striatum of urethane-anesthetized (1.2 g/kg intraperitoneally) male Sprague-Dawley rats by using a direct-current amperometric method coupled to an electrically modified carbon microelectrode. An injector cannula was implanted in the proximity of the electrode (250 microm apart) for focal drugs application.

RESULTS

Local application of NMDA (1 microl, 100 microM) produced a sharp and transient NO(.) signal. Systemic ethanol, 1 or 2.5 g/kg intraperitoneally, caused a long-lasting, dose-dependent inhibition of NMDA-induced NO(.) release to 12.2 +/- 5.9 and 6.4 +/- 3.7% of control, respectively, 60 min after ethanol administration. Dizocilpine (0.5 mg/kg intraperitoneally) mimicked the ethanol effect, inhibiting NO release to 1.6 +/- 0.66% of control. Local application of ethanol (1 microl, 2.5% v/v) in the striatum reduced the NMDA-induced response to 28.6 +/- 3.8% of control. Focal application of the competitive NMDA receptor antagonist D-(-)-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (100 microM) or the nonselective NO synthase inhibitor L-N(G)-nitro-arginine methyl esther (100 microM) also caused inhibition of NMDA-induced NO(.) release to 2.4 +/- 0.7 and 4.3 +/- 0.9% of control, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Ethanol, at pharmacologically significant doses, strongly inhibits striatal NO(.) production and release apparently through inhibition of NMDA receptor function. Inhibition of NMDA receptor-mediated activation of the NO(.) pathway could be a primary neurobiological mechanism contributing to the effects of ethanol.

Inhibition of acetaldehyde metabolism decreases acetylcholine release in medial frontal cortex of freely moving rats

The effect of high acetaldehyde (ACe) on acetylcholine (ACh) release was studied in vivo in the medial frontal cortex (mfc) of freely moving rats using brain microdialysis coupled with high performance liquid chromatography and an electrochemical detector. Ethanol (EtOH) and ACe concentrations were quantified simultaneously in the mfc of awake rats by in vivo microdialysis followed by head-space gas chromatography. Rats were treated intraperitoneally with saline, EtOH (1 and 2 g/kg) or cyanamide (CY, 50 mg/kg, a potent aldehyde dehydrogenase inhibitor) plus EtOH (1 and 2 g/kg). No significant effect on ACh levels was observed in saline groups, as compared to baseline value. The basal level of ACh in the dialysate was about 0.30 +/- 0.04 pmol/20 microl, and this value was reduced significantly in the EtOH (1 and 2 g/kg) and CY + EtOH (1 and 2 g/kg) groups for 240 min after EtOH administration. The time courses of ACh release continued to decrease significantly after EtOH administration in the CY + EtOH (1 and 2 g/kg) groups compared to the values in the saline and EtOH (1 and 2 g/kg) groups. A significant decrease in ACh release was observed from 140 to 240 min after EtOH dosing in the EtOH (1 and 2 g/kg) groups, as compared to saline groups. EtOH and ACe concentrations in the mfc were first determined at 15 min after a dose of EtOH, reached a peak at 30 min and then gradually decreased in the CY + EtOH (1 and 2 g/kg) groups. The present study suggests that both EtOH and ACe concentration in the brain can decrease in vivo ACh release in the mfc of free-moving rats, and the ACe-induced decrease in ACh levels was significantly higher than EtOH.

EFFECT OF ETHANOL ON MORPHINE STATE-DEPENDENT LEARNING IN THE MOUSE: INVOLVEMENT OF GABAERGIC, OPIOIDERGIC AND CHOLINERGIC SYSTEMS

AIMS

We have studied the effect of acute administration of ethanol when it replaced morphine in step-down passive avoidance task on the test day and the effects of antagonists of GABAergic, opioidergic and cholinergic systems on ethanol actions.

METHODS

Morphine (5 mg/kg, s.c.) was administered as pre-training and 24 h later as pre-test drug, and the latencies were measured in mice. Ethanol (0.125, 0.25, 1 and 2 g/kg, i.p.) was administered instead of pre-test morphine. Antagonists of GABAergic (bicuculline 0.5, 1 and 2 mg/kg, i.p.), opioidergic (naloxone 0.06, 0.25 and 1 mg/kg, i.p.) and cholinergic (atropine 0.625 and 1.25 mg/kg, i.p. and mecamylamine 0.5, 1 and 2 mg/kg, i.p.) systems were co-administered with ethanol (0.25 g/kg, i.p.) on the test day. Locomotor activity was measured as well.

RESULTS

Pre-training morphine impaired the memory on the test day which was restored when the same dose of morphine was used as pre-test drug. All four doses of ethanol replaced pre-test morphine and enhanced the memory. This effect was prevented by all of the above antagonists. No significant changes were seen in the locomotor activity of the animals treated with ethanol or antagonists compared to the proper controls.

CONCLUSIONS

GABAergic, endogenous opioidergic and cholinergic systems are involved in the memory recall improvement by ethanol when it replaced morphine on the test day. A review of the literature suggests other possibilities such as the release of intermediate neurotransmitters.