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de Deus M, Petit C, Schwitzer T. ElectroRetinoGraphy toward an exploration of the therapeutic potential of antidepressants in patients with major depressive disorder: A scoping review of the literature. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2024; 164:105833. [PMID: 39089420 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2024.105833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2024] [Revised: 07/07/2024] [Accepted: 07/27/2024] [Indexed: 08/04/2024]
Abstract
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is characterized by at least one major depressive episode. It requires medical attention typically involving the prescription of antidepressants. Remission in MDD patients is often difficult to achieve because of the limited effectiveness of these drugs. Nowadays, numerous patients undergo various antidepressant treatments, with subjective changes in their personal experiences being regularly monitored. Therefore, it is essential to find clinical and objective tools that offer a more tailored approach to antidepressant selection. The neurochemistry of the retina being similar to the brain, one promising approach would be to use ElectroRetinoGraphy (ERG) measurements on MDD patients requiring antidepressant treatment. Thus, the aim of this scoping review is to highlight effects of different classes of antidepressants on retinal function evaluated by full-field ERG (ffERG), Pattern ERG (PERG) and multifocal ERG (mfERG) waveforms in MDD patients. These ERG measurements could serve as pivotal indicators in defining patient profiles, facilitating a more objective and personalized approach to therapeutic interventions, thereby advancing precision psychiatry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie de Deus
- Pôle Hospitalo-Universitaire de Psychiatrie d'Adulte et d'Addictologie du Grand Nancy, Centre Psychothérapique de Nancy, 1, rue du Docteur Archambault, Laxou 54 520, France
| | - Charlotte Petit
- Pôle Hospitalo-Universitaire de Psychiatrie d'Adulte et d'Addictologie du Grand Nancy, Centre Psychothérapique de Nancy, 1, rue du Docteur Archambault, Laxou 54 520, France
| | - Thomas Schwitzer
- Pôle Hospitalo-Universitaire de Psychiatrie d'Adulte et d'Addictologie du Grand Nancy, Centre Psychothérapique de Nancy, 1, rue du Docteur Archambault, Laxou 54 520, France.
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Guo Y, Chen N, Zhao M, Cao B, Zhu F, Guo C, Shi Y, Wang Q, Li Y, Zhang L. D-arabinose acts as antidepressant by activating the ACSS2-PPARγ/TFEB axis and CRTC1 transcription. Pharmacol Res 2024; 202:107136. [PMID: 38460778 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2024.107136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/11/2024]
Abstract
CREB-regulated transcription coactivator 1 (CRTC1), a pivotal synaptonuclear messenger, regulates synaptic plasticity and transmission to prevent depression. Despite exhaustive investigations into CRTC1 mRNA reductions in the depressed mice, the regulatory mechanisms governing its transcription remain elusive. Consequently, exploring rapid but non-toxic CRTC1 inducers at the transcriptional level is important for resisting depression. Here, we demonstrate the potential of D-arabinose, a unique monosaccharide prevalent in edible-medicinal plants, to rapidly enter the brain and induce CRTC1 expression, thereby eliciting rapid-acting and persistent antidepressant responses in chronic restrain stress (CRS)-induced depressed mice. Mechanistically, D-arabinose induces the expressions of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) and transcription factor EB (TFEB), thereby activating CRTC1 transcription. Notably, we elucidate the pivotal role of the acetyl-CoA synthetase short-chain family member 2 (ACSS2) as an obligatory mediator for PPARγ and TFEB to potentiate CRTC1 transcription. Furthermore, D-arabinose augments ACSS2-dependent CRTC1 transcription by activating AMPK through lysosomal AXIN-LKB1 pathway. Correspondingly, the hippocampal down-regulations of ACSS2, PPARγ or TFEB alone failed to reverse CRTC1 reductions in CRS-exposure mice, ultimately abolishing the anti-depressant efficacy of D-arabinose. In summary, our study unveils a previously unexplored role of D-arabinose in activating the ACSS2-PPARγ/TFEB-CRTC1 axis, presenting it as a promising avenue for the prevention and treatment of depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaxin Guo
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Science, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Nuo Chen
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Science, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Ming Zhao
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Science, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Baihui Cao
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Science, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Faliang Zhu
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Science, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Chun Guo
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Science, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Yongyu Shi
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Science, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Qun Wang
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Science, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Yan Li
- Department of Pathogen Biology, School of Basic Medical Science, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China.
| | - Lining Zhang
- Department of Immunology, School of Basic Medical Science, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, China.
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Possamai-Della T, Dal-Pont GC, Resende WR, Aguiar-Geraldo JM, Peper-Nascimento J, Quevedo J, Valvassori SS. Imipramine Can Be Effective on Depressive-Like Behaviors, but Not on Neurotrophic Factor Levels in an Animal Model for Bipolar Disorder Induced by Ouabain. Mol Neurobiol 2022; 59:7170-7181. [PMID: 36121567 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-022-03022-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Despite possible risks of mania switching with the long-term use of antidepressants in patients with bipolar disorder (BD), these drugs may help in depressive episodes. Alterations in neurotrophic factor levels seem to be involved in the pathophysiology of BD. The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of acute treatment of imipramine on behavior and neurotrophic levels in rats submitted to the animal model for BD induced by ouabain. METHODS Wistar rats received a single intracerebroventricular (ICV) injection of artificial cerebrospinal fluid or ouabain (10-3 M). Following the ICV administration, the rats were treated for 14 days with saline (NaCl 0.9%, i.p.), lithium (47.5 mg/kg, i.p.), or valproate (200 mg/kg, i.p.). On the 13th and 14th days of treatment, the animals received an additional injection of saline or imipramine (10 mg/kg, i.p.). Behavior tests were evaluated 7 and 14 days after ICV injection. Adrenal gland weight and concentrations of ACTH were evaluated. Levels of neurotrophins BDNF, NGF, NT-3, and GDNF were measured in the frontal cortex and hippocampus by ELISA test. RESULTS The administration of ouabain induced mania- and depressive-like behavior in the animals 7 and 14 days after ICV, respectively. The treatment with lithium and valproate reversed the mania-like behavior. All treatments were able to reverse most of the depressive-like behaviors induced by ouabain. Moreover, ouabain increased HPA-axis parameters in serum and decreased the neurotrophin levels in the frontal cortex and hippocampus. All treatments, except imipramine, reversed these alterations. CONCLUSION It can be suggested that acute administration of imipramine alone can be effective on depressive-like symptoms but not on neurotrophic factor alterations present in BD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taise Possamai-Della
- Translational Psychiatry Laboratory, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina (UNESC), Criciúma, SC, Brazil
| | - Gustavo C Dal-Pont
- Translational Health Research Laboratory, Alto Vale do Rio do Peixe University, Caçador, Brazil
| | - Wilson R Resende
- Translational Psychiatry Laboratory, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina (UNESC), Criciúma, SC, Brazil
| | - Jorge M Aguiar-Geraldo
- Translational Psychiatry Laboratory, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina (UNESC), Criciúma, SC, Brazil
| | - Jefté Peper-Nascimento
- Translational Psychiatry Laboratory, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina (UNESC), Criciúma, SC, Brazil
| | - João Quevedo
- Translational Psychiatry Laboratory, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina (UNESC), Criciúma, SC, Brazil.,Translational Psychiatry Program, Faillace Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), Houston, TX, USA.,Center of Excellence On Mood Disorders, Faillace Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UTHealth), Houston, TX, USA.,Neuroscience Graduate Program, The University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center UTHealth Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Samira S Valvassori
- Translational Psychiatry Laboratory, Graduate Program in Health Sciences, University of Southern Santa Catarina (UNESC), Criciúma, SC, Brazil.
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Wu ZH, Fan H, Gao SY, Jin YF, Cheng chen, Jiang B, Shen J. Antidepressant-like activity of oroxylin A in mice models of depression: A behavioral and neurobiological characterization. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:921553. [PMID: 35959431 PMCID: PMC9360618 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.921553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Depression is a mood disorder which causes a huge economic burden to both families and societies. However, those monoamine-based antidepressants used in clinical practice have been found to have various limitations. Therefore, currently it is very necessary to explore novel antidepressant targets and medications. As a main active component extracted from Scutellariae radix, oroxylin A possesses many pharmacological functions such as anti-cancer, anti-inflammation and neuroprotection. Here, the present study aims to investigate whether oroxylin A possess antidepressant-like actions using the chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) and chronic restraint stress (CRS) models of depression, forced swim test, tail suspension test, open field test, sucrose preference test, western blotting, immunofluorescence and viral-mediated gene interference. Our results revealed that treatment of oroxylin A fully prevented both the CUMS-induced and CRS-induced depressive-like behaviors in mice. Moreover, the protecting effects of oroxylin A against CUMS and CRS on mice behaviors were accompanied with a significant enhancement on the levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), phosphorylated tyrosine kinase B (pTrkB), phosphorylated cAMP-response element binding protein (pCREB) and neurogenesis in the hippocampus. Furthermore, genetic knockdown of BDNF and TrkB in the hippocampus remarkably abolished the antidepressant-like efficacy of oroxylin A in both the CUMS and CRS models of depression, proving that the hippocampal BDNF-TrkB system participates in the antidepressant mechanism of oroxylin A. In summary, our findings are the first evidence showing that oroxylin A possesses potential of being an antidepressant candidate.
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Downregulation of CRTC1 Is Involved in CUMS-Induced Depression-Like Behavior in the Hippocampus and Its RNA Sequencing Analysis. Mol Neurobiol 2022; 59:4405-4418. [PMID: 35556215 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-022-02787-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Chronic stress is an important risk factor for mood disorders including depression. The decreased level of CREB (cAMP-responsive element binding)-regulated transcription coactivator 1 (CRTC1) expression in hippocampus may be involved in depression-like behavior in some stress-induced depression models. But the mechanism of CRTC1 in mediating depression-like behavior remains unknown. In this study, chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS)-treated mice showed depression-like behavior accompanied by the downregulation of CRTC1 in the hippocampus. Adeno-associated virus (AAV)-CRTC1-mediated overexpression of CRTC1 in the hippocampus by stereotactic brain injection could significantly prevent depression-like behavior in CUMS-treated mice. The above data reveal that the downregulation of hippocampal CRTC1 expression participates in CUMS-induced depression-like behavior. In order to explore the key targets regulated by CRTC1, AAV-mediated CRTC1 short hairpin (shRNA) was constructed to achieve knockdown of CRTC1 in the hippocampus, and then the hippocampi were collected for RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq). The RNA-seq data show that upregulated genes were enriched in stress and immune system-associated GO terms and pathways such as response to stress and external stimulus and regulation of immune response and that downregulated genes were enriched in neural activity such as synaptic transmission and cognitive behavior. We further provided RT-qPCR data that the inflammation-related factors including Gpr84, Tlr2, Lyz2, and Icam1 were significantly upregulated in the hippocampus of both CUMS- and CRTC1 shRNA-induced models, some of them were also validated in protein levels by Western blotting. We propose a hypothesis that CUMS induces downregulation of CRTC1, which might lead to depression-like behavior via neuroinflammation pathway. This study provides new explanation for the inflammatory hypothesis of depression and some clues for exploring the molecular mechanism of CRTC1 regulation.
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Rossetti C, Cherix A, Guiraud LF, Cardinaux JR. New Insights Into the Pivotal Role of CREB-Regulated Transcription Coactivator 1 in Depression and Comorbid Obesity. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:810641. [PMID: 35242012 PMCID: PMC8886117 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.810641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Depression and obesity are major public health concerns, and there is mounting evidence that they share etiopathophysiological mechanisms. The neurobiological pathways involved in both mood and energy balance regulation are complex, multifactorial and still incompletely understood. As a coactivator of the pleiotropic transcription factor cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), CREB-regulated transcription coactivator 1 (CRTC1) has recently emerged as a novel regulator of neuronal plasticity and brain functions, while CRTC1 dysfunction has been associated with neurodegenerative and psychiatric diseases. This review focuses on recent evidence emphasizing the critical role of CRTC1 in the neurobiology of depression and comorbid obesity. We discuss the role of CRTC1 downregulation in mediating chronic stress-induced depressive-like behaviors, and antidepressant response in the light of the previously characterized Crtc1 knockout mouse model of depression. The putative role of CRTC1 in the alteration of brain energy homeostasis observed in depression is also discussed. Finally, we highlight rodent and human studies supporting the critical involvement of CRTC1 in depression-associated obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara Rossetti
- Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University Hospital, University of Lausanne, Prilly, Switzerland
- Service of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University Hospital, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Antoine Cherix
- Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University Hospital, University of Lausanne, Prilly, Switzerland
- Laboratory for Functional and Metabolic Imaging (LIFMET), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Laetitia F. Guiraud
- Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University Hospital, University of Lausanne, Prilly, Switzerland
- Service of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University Hospital, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jean-René Cardinaux
- Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University Hospital, University of Lausanne, Prilly, Switzerland
- Service of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University Hospital, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Gao S, Zhang X, Xu H, Miao D, Qian J, Wu Z, Shi W. Promoting the hippocampal PPARα expression participates in the antidepressant mechanism of reboxetine, a selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor. Behav Brain Res 2022; 416:113535. [PMID: 34416301 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2021] [Revised: 07/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Reboxetine, the first selective norepinephrine (NA) reuptake inhibitor used in the treatment of depression, mainly acts by binding to the NA transporter and blocking reuptake of extracellular NA. Recently, some other pharmacological targets beyond the NA transporter are being demonstrated for reboxetine. Peroxisome proliferator activated receptor α (PPARα) is a member of the nuclear hormone receptor family of ligand-dependent transcription factors. Previous reports have demonstrated the role of hippocampal PPARα in the pathophysiology of depression. Here we assume that hippocampal PPARα may participate in the antidepressant mechanism of reboxetine. Therefore, the chronic social defeat stress (CSDS) model of depression, various behavioral tests, the western blotting and adenovirus associated virus (AAV)-mediated genetic knockdown methods were used together in the present study. Our results showed that repeated reboxetine treatment markedly restored the decreasing effects of CSDS on the expression of hippocampal PPARα, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and phosphorylated cAMP response element binding protein (pCREB). Pharmacological blockade of PPARα notably prevented the antidepressant-like effects of reboxetine in the CSDS model. Furthermore, genetic knockdown of hippocampal PPARα also fully abolished the antidepressant-like effects of reboxetine in the CSDS model. Taken together, promoting the hippocampal PPARα expression participates in the antidepressant mechanism of reboxetine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shangyan Gao
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Nantong Hospital of Shanghai University (The Sixth People's Hospital of Nantong), Nantong, 226011, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xueling Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Suqian Hospital of Xuzhou Medical University, Suqian, 223800, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hui Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Nantong Hospital of Shanghai University (The Sixth People's Hospital of Nantong), Nantong, 226011, Jiangsu, China
| | - Dongjin Miao
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Nantong Hospital of Shanghai University (The Sixth People's Hospital of Nantong), Nantong, 226011, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jiaoni Qian
- Department of Neurology, The Affiliated Nantong Hospital of Shanghai University (The Sixth People's Hospital of Nantong), Nantong, 226011, Jiangsu, China
| | - Zhonghua Wu
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Affiliated Nantong Hospital of Shanghai University (The Sixth People's Hospital of Nantong), Nantong, 226011, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Weihua Shi
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Nantong University, No. 20 Xisi Road, Nantong, 226001, Jiangsu, China.
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Cherix A, Poitry-Yamate C, Lanz B, Zanoletti O, Grosse J, Sandi C, Gruetter R, Cardinaux JR. Deletion of Crtc1 leads to hippocampal neuroenergetic impairments associated with depressive-like behavior. Mol Psychiatry 2022; 27:4485-4501. [PMID: 36224260 PMCID: PMC9734042 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-022-01791-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Mood disorders (MD) are a major burden on society as their biology remains poorly understood, challenging both diagnosis and therapy. Among many observed biological dysfunctions, homeostatic dysregulation, such as metabolic syndrome (MeS), shows considerable comorbidity with MD. Recently, CREB-regulated transcription coactivator 1 (CRTC1), a regulator of brain metabolism, was proposed as a promising factor to understand this relationship. Searching for imaging biomarkers and associating them with pathophysiological mechanisms using preclinical models can provide significant insight into these complex psychiatric diseases and help the development of personalized healthcare. Here, we used neuroimaging technologies to show that deletion of Crtc1 in mice leads to an imaging fingerprint of hippocampal metabolic impairment related to depressive-like behavior. By identifying a deficiency in hippocampal glucose metabolism as the underlying molecular/physiological origin of the markers, we could assign an energy-boosting mood-stabilizing treatment, ebselen, which rescued behavior and neuroimaging markers. Finally, our results point toward the GABAergic system as a potential therapeutic target for behavioral dysfunctions related to metabolic disorders. This study provides new insights on Crtc1's and MeS's relationship to MD and establishes depression-related markers with clinical potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Cherix
- Laboratory for Functional and Metabolic Imaging (LIFMET), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland. .,Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience and Service of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Prilly-Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Carole Poitry-Yamate
- grid.5333.60000000121839049Animal Imaging and Technology (AIT), Center for Biomedical Imaging (CIBM), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Bernard Lanz
- grid.5333.60000000121839049Laboratory for Functional and Metabolic Imaging (LIFMET), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Olivia Zanoletti
- grid.5333.60000000121839049Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain and Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jocelyn Grosse
- grid.5333.60000000121839049Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain and Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Carmen Sandi
- grid.5333.60000000121839049Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain and Mind Institute, School of Life Sciences, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Rolf Gruetter
- grid.5333.60000000121839049Laboratory for Functional and Metabolic Imaging (LIFMET), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jean-René Cardinaux
- Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience and Service of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Prilly-Lausanne, Switzerland.
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