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Palacín J, Rubies E, Clotet E. A Retrospective Analysis of Indoor CO 2 Measurements Obtained with a Mobile Robot during the COVID-19 Pandemic. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:3102. [PMID: 38793956 PMCID: PMC11125027 DOI: 10.3390/s24103102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Revised: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/26/2024]
Abstract
This work presents a retrospective analysis of indoor CO2 measurements obtained with a mobile robot in an educational building after the COVID-19 lockdown (May 2021), at a time when public activities resumed with mandatory local pandemic restrictions. The robot-based CO2 measurement system was assessed as an alternative to the deployment of a net of sensors in a building in the pandemic period, in which there was a global stock outage of CO2 sensors. The analysis of the obtained measurements confirms that a mobile system can be used to obtain interpretable information on the CO2 levels inside the rooms of a building during a pandemic outbreak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi Palacín
- Automation and Robotics Laboratory (ARL), Universitat de Lleida, 25001 Lleida, Spain (E.C.)
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Spernovasilis N, Tsioutis C. Not surprising: a rebound in antibacterial consumption in Europe, with Cyprus and Greece on the podium. J Antimicrob Chemother 2024; 79:933-934. [PMID: 38442334 PMCID: PMC11062937 DOI: 10.1093/jac/dkae055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/07/2024] Open
Abstract
Recent European-wide data place Cyprus and Greece in the highest positions of total antimicrobial consumption. While this level of consumption might be partly attributed to the high rates of infections due to MDR bacteria in these countries, several other reasons should be sought to help apply local measures, to decrease inappropriate and excess antimicrobial use. The present viewpoint aims to provide a roadmap for interventions, by briefly discussing the various factors that underlie antimicrobial use and prescribing practices in Greece and Cyprus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos Spernovasilis
- Department of Infectious Diseases, German Oncology Centre, 4108 Limassol, Cyprus
- School of Medicine, University of Crete, 71500 Heraklion, Greece
| | - Constantinos Tsioutis
- School of Medicine, European University Cyprus, 6 Diogenes str, 2404 Nicosia, Cyprus
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Ballesteros Álvarez J, Romero Barriuso A, Villena Escribano B, Rodríguez Sáiz A, González-Gaya C. Investigating the effectiveness of a new indoor ventilation model in reducing the spread of disease: A case of sports centres amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Heliyon 2024; 10:e27877. [PMID: 38560668 PMCID: PMC10979208 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e27877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
The ventilation of buildings is crucial to ensure indoor health, especially when demanding physical activities are carried out indoors, and the pandemic has highlighted the need to develop new management methods to ensure adequate ventilation. In Spain, there are no specific ventilation regulations to prevent the spread of pathogens such as the coronavirus. Therefore, it is necessary to have a theoretical tool for calculating occupancy to maintain sports facilities in optimal safety conditions. The proposed theoretical method is based on the analysis of mathematical expressions from European standardisation documents and uses the concentration of CO2 as a bioeffluent. It is also based on the concept of background and critical concentration, which allows its application to be extrapolated to future crises caused by pathogens. This study presents a unique and novel dataset for sports centres. For this purpose, the calculation methods were applied to the data set provided by Mostoles City Council, Spain, during the pandemic years with the highest incidence of COVID-19, when the government introduced the assimilation of COVID-19 sick leave to occupational accidents. The data on this type of sick leave provided by the City Council correspond to the period between March 2020 and February 2022. Similarly, the data on the average use of sports facilities by activity, provided by the Sports Department, correspond to the years 2020 and 2021. In this way, it was possible to verify the effectiveness in preventing the spread of any type of coronavirus. In conclusion, the implementation of a theoretical occupancy calculation method based on the concentration of carbon dioxide as a bioeffluent can be an effective tool for the management of future crises caused by pathogens or hazardous chemicals in the air, and demonstrated its effectiveness in sports centres such as gyms, sports fields, and indoor swimming pools during the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- J.M. Ballesteros Álvarez
- Department of Architectural Constructions & Construction and Land Engineering, University of Burgos, Burgos, Spain
| | | | - B.M. Villena Escribano
- Departmet of Construction and Manufacturing Engineering, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, Spain
| | - A. Rodríguez Sáiz
- Department of Architectural Constructions & Construction and Land Engineering, University of Burgos, Burgos, Spain
| | - C. González-Gaya
- Departmet of Construction and Manufacturing Engineering, Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia, Madrid, Spain
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Braggion A, Dugerdil A, Wilson O, Hovagemyan F, Flahault A. Indoor Air Quality and COVID-19: A Scoping Review. Public Health Rev 2024; 44:1605803. [PMID: 38273885 PMCID: PMC10810127 DOI: 10.3389/phrs.2023.1605803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Objectives: The COVID-19 pandemic has been a major public health concern for the past 3 years. Scientific evidence on the relationship between SARS-CoV-2 infection and indoor air quality still needs to be demonstrated. This scoping review aims to study the association between air quality indoors and COVID-19. Methods: A scoping review analyzing the association between indoor air quality and epidemiological outcomes was conducted. Papers published between 1 January 2020 and 31 October 2022 were included. Hospital settings were excluded from the study. Results: Eight relevant articles met the inclusion criteria. Indoor settings included workplaces, schools, restaurants, and public transport. Types of ventilation used to improve indoor air quality were dilution methods (opening windows) and mechanical systems with or without filtration or purifier. CO2 sensors were employed in one study. All the studies showed a positive association between indoor air quality and its improvement and epidemiological indicators. Conclusion: The findings of this scoping review indicate that indoor air quality, which can be improved with ventilation methods, may reduce the risk of developing COVID-19. Ventilation could thus be viewed as a possible effective mitigating method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axelle Braggion
- Institut de Santé Globale, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Genève, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Adeline Dugerdil
- Institut de Santé Globale, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Genève, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Olwen Wilson
- Institut de Santé Globale, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Genève, Geneva, Switzerland
- School of Public Policy, London School of Economics, London, United Kingdom
| | - Francesca Hovagemyan
- Institut de Santé Globale, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Genève, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Antoine Flahault
- Institut de Santé Globale, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Genève, Geneva, Switzerland
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Barros N, Sobral P, Moreira RS, Vargas J, Fonseca A, Abreu I, Guerreiro MS. SchoolAIR: A Citizen Science IoT Framework Using Low-Cost Sensing for Indoor Air Quality Management. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 24:148. [PMID: 38203010 PMCID: PMC10781081 DOI: 10.3390/s24010148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Indoor air quality (IAQ) problems in school environments are very common and have significant impacts on students' performance, development and health. Indoor air conditions depend on the adopted ventilation practices, which in Mediterranean countries are essentially based on natural ventilation controlled through manual window opening. Citizen science projects directed to school communities are effective strategies to promote awareness and knowledge acquirement on IAQ and adequate ventilation management. Our multidisciplinary research team has developed a framework-SchoolAIR-based on low-cost sensors and a scalable IoT system architecture to support the improvement of IAQ in schools. The SchoolAIR framework is based on do-it-yourself sensors that continuously monitor air temperature, relative humidity, concentrations of carbon dioxide and particulate matter in school environments. The framework was tested in the classrooms of University Fernando Pessoa, and its deployment and proof of concept took place in a high school in the north of Portugal. The results obtained reveal that CO2 concentrations frequently exceed reference values during classes, and that higher concentrations of particulate matter in the outdoor air affect IAQ. These results highlight the importance of real-time monitoring of IAQ and outdoor air pollution levels to support decision-making in ventilation management and assure adequate IAQ. The proposed approach encourages the transfer of scientific knowledge from universities to society in a dynamic and active process of social responsibility based on a citizen science approach, promoting scientific literacy of the younger generation and enhancing healthier, resilient and sustainable indoor environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nelson Barros
- FP-I3ID—Fernando Pessoa Institute for Research, Innovation and Development, 4249-004 Porto, Portugal; (A.F.); (I.A.); (M.S.G.)
- CINTESIS.UFP—Center for Health Technology and Services Research, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Pedro Sobral
- LIACC—Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal; (P.S.); (R.S.M.)
- Faculty of Science and Technology, University Fernando Pessoa, 4249-004 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Rui S. Moreira
- LIACC—Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science Laboratory, University of Porto, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal; (P.S.); (R.S.M.)
- Faculty of Science and Technology, University Fernando Pessoa, 4249-004 Porto, Portugal;
| | - João Vargas
- Faculty of Science and Technology, University Fernando Pessoa, 4249-004 Porto, Portugal;
| | - Ana Fonseca
- FP-I3ID—Fernando Pessoa Institute for Research, Innovation and Development, 4249-004 Porto, Portugal; (A.F.); (I.A.); (M.S.G.)
- CINTESIS.UFP—Center for Health Technology and Services Research, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Isabel Abreu
- FP-I3ID—Fernando Pessoa Institute for Research, Innovation and Development, 4249-004 Porto, Portugal; (A.F.); (I.A.); (M.S.G.)
- CINTESIS.UFP—Center for Health Technology and Services Research, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria Simas Guerreiro
- FP-I3ID—Fernando Pessoa Institute for Research, Innovation and Development, 4249-004 Porto, Portugal; (A.F.); (I.A.); (M.S.G.)
- CINTESIS.UFP—Center for Health Technology and Services Research, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
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Dacunto P, Nam S, Hirn M, Rodriguez A, Owkes M, Benson M. Classroom aerosol dispersion modeling: experimental assessment of a low-cost flow simulation tool. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2023; 25:2157-2166. [PMID: 37966351 DOI: 10.1039/d3em00356f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to assess the utility of a low-cost flow simulation tool for an indoor air modeling application by comparing its outputs with the results of a physical experiment, as well as those from a more advanced computational fluid dynamics (CFD) software package. Five aerosol dispersion tests were performed in two different classrooms by releasing a CO2 tracer gas from six student locations. Resultant steady-state concentrations were monitored at 13 locations around the periphery of the room. Subsequently, the experiments were modeled using both a low-cost tool (SolidWorks Flow Simulation) and a more sophisticated tool (STAR-CCM+). Models were evaluated based on their ability to predict the experimentally measured concentrations at the 13 monitoring locations by calculating four performance parameters commonly used in the evaluation of dispersion models: fractional mean bias (FB), normalized mean-square error (NMSE), fraction of predicted value within a factor of two (FAC2), and normalized absolute difference (NAD). The more sophisticated model performed better in 15 of the 20 possible cases (five tests at four parameters each), with parameters meeting acceptance criteria in 19 of 20 cases. However, the lower-cost tool was only slightly worse, with parameters meeting acceptance criteria in 18 of 20 cases, and it performed better than the other tool in 3 of 20 cases. Because it provides useful results at a fraction of the monetary and training cost and is already widely accessible to many institutions, such a tool may be worthwhile for many indoor aerosol dispersion applications, especially for students or researchers just beginning CFD modeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Dacunto
- United States Military Academy, Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering, West Point NY 10996, USA.
| | - S Nam
- United States Military Academy, Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering, West Point NY 10996, USA.
| | - M Hirn
- United States Military Academy, Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering, West Point NY 10996, USA.
| | - A Rodriguez
- United States Military Academy, Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, West Point NY 10996, USA
| | - M Owkes
- Montana State University, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Bozeman MT 59717, USA
| | - M Benson
- United States Military Academy, Department of Civil and Mechanical Engineering, West Point NY 10996, USA
- Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge TN 37830, USA
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Horne J, Dunne N, Singh N, Safiuddin M, Esmaeili N, Erenler M, Ho I, Luk E. Building parameters linked with indoor transmission of SARS-CoV-2. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 238:117156. [PMID: 37717799 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2023.117156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2023] [Revised: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/19/2023]
Abstract
The rapid spread of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has emphasized the importance of understanding and adapting to the indoor remediation of transmissible diseases to decrease the risk for future pandemic threats. While there were many precautions in place to hinder the spread of COVID-19, there has also been a substantial increase of new research on SARS-CoV-2 that can be utilized to further mitigate the transmission risk of this novel virus. This review paper aims to identify the building parameters of indoor spaces that could have considerable influence on the transmission of SARS-CoV-2. The following building parameters have been identified and analyzed, emphasizing their link with the indoor transmission of SARS-CoV-2: temperature and relative humidity, temperature differences between rooms, ventilation rate and access to natural ventilation, occupant density, surface type and finish, airflow direction and speed, air stability, indoor air pollution, central air conditioning systems, capacity of air handling system and HVAC filter efficiency, edge sealing of air filters, room layout and interior design, and compartmentalization of interior space. This paper also explains the interactions of SARS-CoV-2 with indoor environments and its persistence. Furthermore, the modifications of the key building parameters have been discussed for controlling the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in indoor spaces. Understanding the information provided in this paper is crucial to develop effective health and safety measures that will aid in infection prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacqueline Horne
- Centre for Construction and Engineering Technologies, George Brown College, Casa Loma Campus, 160 Kendal Avenue, Toronto, ON M5R 1M3, Canada
| | - Nicholas Dunne
- Centre for Construction and Engineering Technologies, George Brown College, Casa Loma Campus, 160 Kendal Avenue, Toronto, ON M5R 1M3, Canada
| | - Nirmala Singh
- Centre for Construction and Engineering Technologies, George Brown College, Casa Loma Campus, 160 Kendal Avenue, Toronto, ON M5R 1M3, Canada
| | - Md Safiuddin
- Centre for Construction and Engineering Technologies, George Brown College, Casa Loma Campus, 160 Kendal Avenue, Toronto, ON M5R 1M3, Canada.
| | - Navid Esmaeili
- Centre for Construction and Engineering Technologies, George Brown College, Casa Loma Campus, 160 Kendal Avenue, Toronto, ON M5R 1M3, Canada
| | - Merve Erenler
- Centre for Construction and Engineering Technologies, George Brown College, Casa Loma Campus, 160 Kendal Avenue, Toronto, ON M5R 1M3, Canada
| | - Ian Ho
- Sysconverge Inc., 7030 Woodbine Avenue, Suite 500, Markham, ON L3R 6G2, Canada
| | - Edwin Luk
- Sysconverge Inc., 7030 Woodbine Avenue, Suite 500, Markham, ON L3R 6G2, Canada
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Pechter E, Lessin N. Measuring Indoor Air Quality Does Not Prevent COVID-19. New Solut 2023; 33:95-103. [PMID: 37700674 DOI: 10.1177/10482911231196883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/14/2023]
Abstract
Boston Public Schools (BPS) closed for in-person learning in March 2020 due to COVID-19 and didn't fully reopen until the 2021-2022 school year. Due to the age of schools and absent ventilation systems, coupled with decades of disinvestment in the infrastructure, BPS entered the pandemic with serious challenges impacting the health of students and staff. These challenges were magnified by an infectious airborne virus. Instead of using this opportunity to improve ventilation systems, BPS opted to invest in an air quality monitoring system. This system only confirmed what was already known-there is poor ventilation in most school buildings. It did not lead to correction of new or long-standing problems. This failure has harmed the BPS community, which includes primarily low-income Black and Brown families. This article describes Boston's school system, its track record of inadequate attention to infrastructure, and explores pitfalls of focusing on evaluation instead of correction.
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Vita G, Woolf D, Avery-Hickmott T, Rowsell R. A CFD-based framework to assess airborne infection risk in buildings. BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT 2023; 233:110099. [PMID: 36815961 PMCID: PMC9925846 DOI: 10.1016/j.buildenv.2023.110099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has prompted huge efforts to further the scientific knowledge of indoor ventilation and its relationship to airborne infection risk. Exhaled infectious aerosols are spread and inhaled as a result of room airflow characteristics. Many calculation methods and assertions on risk assume 'well-mixed' flow conditions. However, ventilation in buildings is complex and often not showing well-mixed conditions. Ventilation guidance is typically based on the provision of generic minimum ventilation flow rates for a given space, irrespective of the effectiveness in the delivery of the supply air. Furthermore, the airflow might be heavily affected by the season, the HVAC ventilation, or the opening of windows, which would potentially generate draughts and non-uniform conditions. As a result, fresh air concentration would be variable depending upon a susceptible receptor's position in a room and, therefore, associated airborne infection risk. A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and dynamic thermal modelling (DTM) framework is proposed to assess the influence of internal airflow characteristics on airborne infection risk. A simple metric is proposed, the hourly airborne infection rate (HAI) which can easily help designers to stress-test the ventilation within a building under several conditions. A case study is presented, and the results clearly demonstrate the importance of understanding detailed indoor airflow characteristics and associated concentration patterns in order to provide detailed design guidance, e.g. occupancy, supply air diffusers and furniture layouts, to reduce airborne infection risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulio Vita
- Wirth Research Ltd, Charlotte Avenue, Bicester, OX27 8BL, United Kingdom
- University of Birmingham School of Engineering Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - Darren Woolf
- Wirth Research Ltd, Charlotte Avenue, Bicester, OX27 8BL, United Kingdom
| | | | - Rob Rowsell
- Wirth Research Ltd, Charlotte Avenue, Bicester, OX27 8BL, United Kingdom
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Jendrossek SN, Jurk LA, Remmers K, Cetin YE, Sunder W, Kriegel M, Gastmeier P. The Influence of Ventilation Measures on the Airborne Risk of Infection in Schools: A Scoping Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2023; 20:3746. [PMID: 36834438 PMCID: PMC9961295 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph20043746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To review the risk of airborne infections in schools and evaluate the effect of intervention measures reported in field studies. BACKGROUND Schools are part of a country's critical infrastructure. Good infection prevention measures are essential for reducing the risk of infection in schools as much as possible, since these are places where many individuals spend a great deal of time together every weekday in a small area where airborne pathogens can spread quickly. Appropriate ventilation can reduce the indoor concentration of airborne pathogens and reduce the risk of infection. METHODS A systematic search of the literature was conducted in the databases Embase, MEDLINE, and ScienceDirect using keywords such as school, classroom, ventilation, carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration, SARS-CoV-2, and airborne transmission. The primary endpoint of the studies selected was the risk of airborne infection or CO2 concentration as a surrogate parameter. Studies were grouped according to the study type. RESULTS We identified 30 studies that met the inclusion criteria, six of them intervention studies. When specific ventilation strategies were lacking in schools being investigated, CO2 concentrations were often above the recommended maximum values. Improving ventilation lowered the CO2 concentration, resulting in a lower risk of airborne infections. CONCLUSIONS The ventilation in many schools is not adequate to guarantee good indoor air quality. Ventilation is an important measure for reducing the risk of airborne infections in schools. The most important effect is to reduce the time of residence of pathogens in the classrooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra N. Jendrossek
- Institute of Hygiene and Environmental Medicine, Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 12203 Berlin, Germany
| | - Lukas A. Jurk
- Institute of Industrial Building and Construction Design, Technical University Carolo Wilhelmina, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Kirsten Remmers
- Institute of Industrial Building and Construction Design, Technical University Carolo Wilhelmina, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Yunus E. Cetin
- Hermann-Rietschel-Institut, Technical University of Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Sunder
- Institute of Industrial Building and Construction Design, Technical University Carolo Wilhelmina, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Martin Kriegel
- Hermann-Rietschel-Institut, Technical University of Berlin, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Petra Gastmeier
- Institute of Hygiene and Environmental Medicine, Charité—Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin and Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, 12203 Berlin, Germany
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Felgueiras F, Mourão Z, Moreira A, Gabriel MF. A systematic review of ventilation conditions and airborne particulate matter levels in urban offices. INDOOR AIR 2022; 32:e13148. [PMID: 36437647 DOI: 10.1111/ina.13148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Many working activities are carried out in office buildings that are located in urban areas. Several studies have shown that these workplaces are likely to present poor indoor environmental quality (IEQ) due to inadequate ventilation rates, compromised thermal comfort conditions, and/or high concentration of air pollutants, such as particulate matter. This study aimed to review ventilation conditions, based on carbon dioxide (CO2 ) concentrations, and indoor airborne particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10 ) levels assessed in offices worldwide. The approach carried out in this work followed Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Six databases (Scopus, Web of Science, PubMed, Inspec, Science Direct, and Dimensions) were used to search for peer-reviewed articles on the subject of IEQ, in particular, those reporting data for the levels of CO2 and particulate matter in offices, published during the last decade. Firstly, 394 records were identified, resulting in 23 articles included in the review after the screening process and the implementation of eligibility criteria. Based on the results and considering the mean concentration reported, office environments present, in general, acceptable ventilation conditions (mean: 665 ppm). However, the few cases of studies that reported CO2 values exceeding 1000 ppm identified situations of high occupancy density and inadequate operation of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems as the unequivocal causative factors. In turn, PM2.5 and PM10 seemed to be IEQ parameters that are even more critical to be tackled in offices, with the reported overall mean values (36 and 63 μg/m3 ) exceeding the current World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines (15 and 45 μg/m3 ). The highest aerosol concentrations were typically found in naturally ventilated buildings and were mostly associated with the influence of high levels of particles introduced indoors through the outdoor air. Overall, measures for improving IEQ in offices toward promoting healthy and safe environments for workers include strategies to periodically control IEQ, ensure the adequate percentage of fresh air and maintenance of the mechanical ventilation systems (operation, maintenance, and air filtration efficiency), and adjust occupancy to the room dimensions and ventilation conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fátima Felgueiras
- LAETA - INEGI, Associated Laboratory for Energy and Aeronautics, Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Porto, Portugal
- EPIUnit, Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Zenaida Mourão
- INESC TEC, Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Science, Porto, Portugal
| | - André Moreira
- EPIUnit, Institute of Public Health, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
- Basic and Clinical Immunology Unit, Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Marta Fonseca Gabriel
- LAETA - INEGI, Associated Laboratory for Energy and Aeronautics, Institute of Science and Innovation in Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Porto, Portugal
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McLeod RS, Hopfe CJ, Bodenschatz E, Moriske H, Pöschl U, Salthammer T, Curtius J, Helleis F, Niessner J, Herr C, Klimach T, Seipp M, Steffens T, Witt C, Willich SN. A multi-layered strategy for COVID-19 infection prophylaxis in schools: A review of the evidence for masks, distancing, and ventilation. INDOOR AIR 2022; 32:e13142. [PMID: 36305077 PMCID: PMC9827916 DOI: 10.1111/ina.13142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Implications for the academic and interpersonal development of children and adolescents underpin a global political consensus to maintain in-classroom teaching during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. In support of this aim, the WHO and UNICEF have called for schools around the globe to be made safer from the risk of COVID-19 transmission. Detailed guidance is needed on how this goal can be successfully implemented in a wide variety of educational settings in order to effectively mitigate impacts on the health of students, staff, their families, and society. This review provides a comprehensive synthesis of current scientific evidence and emerging standards in relation to the use of layered prevention strategies (involving masks, distancing, and ventilation), setting out the basis for their implementation in the school environment. In the presence of increasingly infectious SARS-Cov-2 variants, in-classroom teaching can only be safely maintained through a layered strategy combining multiple protective measures. The precise measures that are needed at any point in time depend upon a number of dynamic factors, including the specific threat-level posed by the circulating variant, the level of community infection, and the political acceptability of the resultant risk. By consistently implementing appropriate prophylaxis measures, evidence shows that the risk of infection from in-classroom teaching can be dramatically reduced. Current studies indicate that wearing high-quality masks and regular testing are amongst the most important measures in preventing infection transmission; whilst effective natural and mechanical ventilation systems have been shown to reduce infection risks in classrooms by over 80%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert S. McLeod
- Institute for Building Physics, Services and ConstructionGraz University of TechnologyGrazAustria
| | - Christina J. Hopfe
- Institute for Building Physics, Services and ConstructionGraz University of TechnologyGrazAustria
| | - Eberhard Bodenschatz
- Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self‐OrganizationGottingenGermany
- Georg‐August‐University GöttingenGottingenGermany
| | | | - Ulrich Pöschl
- Max Planck Institute for ChemistryMainzGermany
- Johannes Gutenberg University MainzMainzGermany
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Martin Seipp
- Technical University of Central HesseGiessenGermany
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