Study on macrophage activation and structural characteristics of purified polysaccharide from the liquid culture broth of Cordyceps militaris

Effect of subcritical water temperature on the structure, antioxidant activity and immune activity of polysaccharides from Glycyrrhiza inflata Batalin

In this study, the polysaccharide from Glycyrrhiza inflata Batalin extracted by hot water (HW-GP) was further physically modified with subcritical water to obtain novel polysaccharides (SW-GP). Comparative analysis was conducted to examine the disparities in conformation and bioactivity between HW-GP and SW-GP, aiming to precisely regulate the structure of the polysaccharides and enhance their bioactivity by controlling subcritical water temperature. The results showed that, compared with HW-GP, subcritical water modification (100-160 °C) not only significantly reduced the molecular weight of polysaccharides (from 5.586 × 105 g/mol to 1.484 × 105 g/mol), but also modulated the intermolecular interaction forces, which maintain the conformation of the polysaccharides, including electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions, thereby dynamically transforming the polysaccharide chain conformation from triple helix to random coil, and the strength of the chain conformation shifted from rigid to flexible. In addition, the modification of the SW-GP structure by subcritical water also enhanced its biological activity. SW-GP (140 °C) with low molecular weight and semi-rigid triple helix conformation showed the best scavenging effect on the DPPH, ABTS, and hydroxyl radicals, and exhibited excellent antioxidant activity. SW-GP (130 °C) with medium molecular weight and semi-rigid triple helix conformation significantly promoted the proliferation and phagocytosis of RAW264.7 cells, as well as increased the release levels of NO, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β, and the immunomodulatory activity was much higher than that of other polysaccharides. These findings confirmed the feasibility of using subcritical water temperature as a regulatory feature for the structure and bioactivity of glycyrrhiza polysaccharides, which may have reference significance for the modification of polysaccharides with heightened bioactivity.

A review on polysaccharide biosynthesis in Cordyceps militaris

Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris) is an edible parasitic fungus with medicinal properties. Its bioactive polysaccharides are structurally diverse and exhibit various metabolic and biological activities, including antitumor, hypoglycemic, antioxidant, hypolipidemic, anti-inflammatory, immunostimulatory, and anti-atherosclerotic effects. These properties make C. militaris-derived polysaccharides a promising candidate for future development. Recent advancements in microbial fermentation technology have enabled successful laboratory cultivation and extraction of these polysaccharides. These polysaccharides are structurally diverse and exhibit various biological activities, such as immunostimulatory, antioxidant, antitumor, hypolipidemic, and anti-atherosclerotic effects. This review aims to summarize the structure and production mechanisms of polysaccharides from C. militaris, covering extraction methods, key genes and pathways involved in biosynthesis, and fermentation factors that influence yield and activity. Furthermore, the future potential and challenges of utilizing polysaccharides in the development of health foods and pharmaceuticals are addressed. This review serves as a valuable reference in the fields of food and medicine, and provides a theoretical foundation for the study of polysaccharides.

Chinese Cordyceps: Bioactive Components, Antitumor Effects and Underlying Mechanism-A Review

Chinese Cordyceps is a valuable source of natural products with various therapeutic effects. It is rich in various active components, of which adenosine, cordycepin and polysaccharides have been confirmed with significant immunomodulatory and antitumor functions. However, the underlying antitumor mechanism remains poorly understood. In this review, we summarized and analyzed the chemical characteristics of the main components and their pharmacological effects and mechanism on immunomodulatory and antitumor functions. The analysis revealed that Chinese Cordyceps promotes immune cells' antitumor function by via upregulating immune responses and downregulating immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment and resetting the immune cells' phenotype. Moreover, Chinese Cordyceps can inhibit the growth and metastasis of tumor cells by death (including apoptosis and autophagy) induction, cell-cycle arrest, and angiogenesis inhibition. Recent evidence has revealed that the signal pathways of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), nuclear factor kappaB (NF-κB), cysteine-aspartic proteases (caspases) and serine/threonine kinase Akt were involved in the antitumor mechanisms. In conclusion, Chinese Cordyceps, one type of magic mushroom, can be potentially developed as immunomodulator and anticancer therapeutic agents.

The immunomodulatory activity of degradation products of Sesbania cannabina galactomannan with different molecular weights

Galactomannan (GM) is widely recognized as an immune enhancer; however, the underlying molecular mechanism is still unknown. Herein, four products with molecular weights in descending order, namely GM40, GM50, GM65, and GMOS, were separated from incomplete degradation products of Sesbania cannabina GM by ethanol precipitation, followed by their immunomodulatory activity. Through FTIR and XPS spectra, the amount of free hydroxyl groups was shown to decrease in the following order: GM > GM50 > GMOS > GM40 > GM65. Moreover, the immunomodulatory activity of different products decreased in abovementioned order. The TNF-α, IL-6 and TLR4 content in RAW 264.7 cells treated with different GM products in the presence or absence of TAK-242 (TLR4 inhibitor) suggested that the immunomodulatory activity of GM and its degradation products is TLR4-dependent. Overall, the preliminary relationship indicated here between the hydroxyl groups or the possible deeper structural changes of GM and the immunomodulatory activity need to be further investigated.

Isolation and immune activity of a new acidic Cordyceps militaris exopolysaccharide

A new type of acidic exopolysaccharide (AESP-II) was extracted and separated from the fermentation broth of Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris), which was further purified to elucidate its structural characteristics and immunological activity. AESP-II was confirmed to be an acidic pyranose with a molecular weight of 61.52 kDa, which consisted of mannose, glucuronic acid, rhamnose, galactose acid, N-acetyl-galactosamine, glucose, galactose and arabinose with a molar ratio of 1.07: 5.38: 1: 3.14: 2.23: 15: 6.09: and 4.04. Animal experiment results verified that AESP-II can significantly promote the proliferation of spleen T and B lymphocytes in mice with immune injury caused by cyclophosphamide (CTX). In particular, the promotion of B lymphocytes presented a dose-effect relationship. In addition, the levels of the cytokines IL-2, IL-4, and IFN-γ, which are mainly secreted by T lymphocytes, and immunoglobulin IgG, IgM and IgA, which are mainly secreted by B lymphocytes, were increased after AESP-II treatment. The above results suggest that fluid immunity is involved in the immunomodulatory function of AESP-II. Simultaneously, AESP-II was detected significantly to promote the phosphorylation expression of p38 kinase (p38), extracellular regulated protein kinases (ERK) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) by Western blot, further suggesting that the activation of the MAPK signaling pathway mediates the immunoregulatory function of AESP-II.

Cordyceps militaris: An Overview of Its Chemical Constituents in Relation to Biological Activity

Cordyceps spp. mushrooms have a long tradition of use as a natural raw material in Asian ethnomedicine because of their adaptogenic, tonic effects and their ability to reduce fatigue and stimulate the immune system in humans. This review aims to present the chemical composition and medicinal properties of Cordyceps militaris fruiting bodies and mycelium, as well as mycelium from in vitro cultures. The analytical results of the composition of C. militaris grown in culture media show the bioactive components such as cordycepin, polysaccharides, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), ergothioneine and others described in the review. To summarize, based on the presence of several bioactive compounds that contribute to biological activity, C. militaris mushrooms definitely deserve to be considered as functional foods and also have great potential for medicinal use. Recent scientific reports indicate the potential of cordycepin in antiviral activity, particularly against COVID-19.

Classification, structure and mechanism of antiviral polysaccharides derived from edible and medicinal fungus

The deficiency of chemical-synthesized antiviral drugs when applied in clinical therapy, such as drug resistance, and the lack of effective antiviral drugs to treat some newly emerging virus infections, such as COVID-19, promote the demand of novelty and safety anti-virus drug candidate from natural functional ingredient. Numerous studies have shown that some polysaccharides sourcing from edible and medicinal fungus (EMFs) exert direct or indirect anti-viral capacities. However, the internal connection of fungus type, polysaccharides structural characteristics, action mechanism was still unclear. Herein, our review focus on the two aspects, on the one hand, we discussed the type of anti-viral EMFs and the structural characteristics of polysaccharides to clarify the structure-activity relationship, on the other hand, the directly or indirectly antiviral mechanism of EMFs polysaccharides, including virus function suppression, immune-modulatory activity, anti-inflammatory activity, regulation of population balance of gut microbiota have been concluded to provide a comprehensive theory basis for better clinical utilization of EMFs polysaccharides as anti-viral agents.

Trends in the Immunomodulatory Effects of Cordyceps militaris: Total Extracts, Polysaccharides and Cordycepin

Cordyceps militaris (C. militaris) is a fungus with a long history of widespread use in folk medicine, and its biological and medicinal functions are well studied. A crucial pharmacological effect of C. militaris is immunomodulation. In this review, we catalog the immunomodulatory effects of different extracts of C. militaris, namely total extracts, polysaccharides and cordycepin. Total extracts obtained using water or 50% ethyl alcohol and polysaccharides from C. militaris were discovered to tend to promote type 1 immunity, whereas total extracts obtained using 70-80% ethyl alcohol and cordycepin from C. militaris were more likely to promote type 2 immunity. This article is the first to classify the immunomodulatory effects of different extracts of C. militaris. In addition, we discovered a relationship between different segments or extracts and differing types of immunity. This review can provide the readers a comprehensive understanding on the immunomodulatory effects of the precious folk medicine and guidance on its use for both health people and those with an immunodeficiency.

Structure, antioxidant and immunomodulatory activity of a polysaccharide extracted from Sacha inchi seeds

In this study, a novel water-soluble polysaccharide (PVLP-1) was extracted and purified from Sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) seeds and the structure, antioxidant and immunomodulatory activity of PVLP-1 were investigated. PVLP-1 (144 kDa) consisted of glucose (69.76%), mannose (14.86%), arabinose (10.53%), galactose (2.42%), ribose (1.23%), rhamnose (0.27%) and xylose (0.93%). PVLP-1 displayed characteristic polysaccharide bands in Fourier transform NMR spectra and infrared. The primary structure of PVLP-1 was a heteropolysaccharide with a backbone of (1 → 6)-linked glucose, sidechains of (1 → 4)-linked mannose, (1 → 4)-linked glucose and (1 → 3, 6)-linked mannose and a residue unit of →1)-linked arabinose as revealed the methylation analysis. PVLP-1 possessed good water-holding capacity (WHC), oil-holding capacity (OHC) and antioxidant capacities. Besides, PVLP-1 induced the proliferation of RAW264.7 cell and enhanced the expression of inflammatory cytokines IL-6, TNF-alpha(TNF-α) and IL-1 beta (IL-1β). The present study indicated that PVLP-1 possessed immune-enhancing bioactivities and could be functional food or adjuvant drug to improve biological immunity of immunodeficiency diseases and hypoimmunity.

Polysaccharides from Cordyceps miltaris cultured at different pH: Sugar composition and antioxidant activity

In the study, the β-glucan content, the primary structure and the antioxidant capacity of polysaccharides in Cordyceps militaris cultivated with different initial growth pH were evaluated. Meanwhile, the mechanism of β-glucan biosynthesis was investigated by RNA-Seq. Based on the results, C. militaris growing at an initial growth pH of 5-7 (CMsA) was distinguished from C. militaris growing at an initial growth pH of 8-9 (CMsB) and their unigenes showed the comparable expression. The mean of β-glucan content of CMsB group was 32.7% (w/w), 10% higher than that of CMsA. The results of RNA-seq showed 1088 differentially expressed genes between CMsA and CMsB groups. Furthermore, oxidative phosphorylation-related Gene ontology terms were up-regulated in CMsB groups. In addition, the results of structural analysis (FTIR spectrum, monosaccharide composition, periodate oxidation) and bioactivity evaluation speculated that C. militaris polysaccharides possessed higher β-(1 → 6)-glucan content and antioxidant activities in CMsB groups.

Structural characterization of polysaccharides from Cordyceps militaris and their hypolipidemic effects in high fat diet fed mice

Cordyceps militaris is a crude dietary therapeutic mushroom with high nutritional and medicinal values. Mushroom-derived polysaccharides have been found to possess antihyperglycemic and antihyperlipidemic activities. This study aimed to partially clarify the structural characterization and comparatively evaluate hypolipidemic potentials of intracellular- (IPCM) and extracellular polysaccharides of C. militaris (EPCM) in high fat diet fed mice. Results indicated that IPCM-2 is α-pyran polysaccharide with an average molecular weight of 32.5 kDa, was mainly composed of mannose, glucose and galactose with mass percentages of 51.94%, 10.54%, and 37.25%, respectively. EPCM-2 is an α-pyran polysaccharide with an average molecular weight of 20 kDa that is mainly composed of mannose, glucose and galactose with mass percentages of 44.51%, 18.33%, and 35.38%, respectively. In in vivo study, EPCM-1 treatment (100 mg kg-1 d-1) showed potential effects on improving serum lipid profiles of hyperlipidemic mice, reflected by decreasing serum total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG) and low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) levels by 20.05%, 45.45% and 52.63%, respectively, while IPCM-1 treatment (100 mg kg-1 d-1) remarkably decreased TC, TG and LDL-C levels by 20.74%, 47.93%, and 38.25%, respectively. In addition, EPCM-1 ameliorated hyperlipidemia possibly through upregulating the expression of serum lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and down-regulating the expression of hepatic 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGR), as determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method, while IPCM-1 remarkably upregulated the expression of serum LPL. This study confirms polysaccharides from C. militaris could be explored as functional foods or natural medicines for preventing hyperlipidemia.

Isolation, purification, structural characterization and immunostimulatory activity of water-soluble polysaccharides from Lepidium meyenii

A water-soluble polysaccharide LMP-1 was isolated and purified by ion-exchange chromatography from maca (Lepidium meyenii Walp.). LMP-1 has a molecular weight of 1.01 × 10⁴ Da, and is composed of glucose and arabinose with a molar ratio of 7.03:1.08. Methylation and the 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy of LMP-1 revealed that it is mainly composed of →4)-α-D-Glcp-(1→, →6)-α-D-Glcp-(1→, →3)-α-D-Glcp-(1→, and β-D-Araf-(1→, with branching at O-6 of →4,6)-α-D-Glcp-(1 → . LMP-1 showed up-regulation of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2). The upstream proteins of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) (CD14 and MD2) and mRNA level of IL-1β also increased. Increased transcription factor nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) p65 was found in the nuclei and cytoplasm in LMP-1-treated RAW264.7 macrophages. These results indicated that LMP-1 activated RAW264.7 macrophages and elicited immunostimulatory activities via the TLRs/NF-κB signalling pathway.

Safety considerations of plant polysaccharides for food use: a case study on phenolic-rich softwood galactoglucomannan extract

A growing population and concern over the sufficiency of natural resources for feeding this population have motivated researchers and industries to search for alternative and complementary sources of food ingredients and additives.

Comparing the sugar profiles and primary structures of alkali-extracted water-soluble polysaccharides in cell wall between the yeast and mycelial phases from Tremella fuciformis

To gain insights into dimorphism, cell wall polysaccharides from Tremella fuciformis strains were obtained from alkali-extracted water-soluble fractions PTF-M38 (from the mycelial form), PTF-Y3 and PTF-Y8 (from the yeast form) of T. fuciformis strains were used to gain some insights into dimorphism study. Their chemical properties and structural features were investigated using gel permeation chromatography, gas chromatography, UV and IR spectrophotometry and Congo red binding reactions. The results indicated that the backbones of PTF-M38, PTF-Y3 and PTF-Y8 were configured with α-linkages with average molecular weights of 1.24, 1.08, and 1.19 kDa, respectively. PTF-M38 was mainly composed of xylose, mannose, glucose, and galactose in a ratio of 1:1.47:0.48:0.34, while PTF-Y3 and PTF-Y8 were mainly composed of xylose, mannose and glucose in a ratio of 1:1.65:4.06 and 1:1.21:0.44, respectively. The sugar profiles of PTF-M38, PTF-Y3 and PTF-Y8 were also established for further comparison. These profiles showed that all three polysaccharides contained the same sugars but in different ratios, and the carbon sources (xylose, mannose, glucose, and galactose) affected the sugar ratios within the polysaccharides.

Structure elucidation of a bioactive polysaccharide from fruiting bodies of Hericium erinaceus in different maturation stages

HPB-3, a heteropolysaccharide, with a mean molecular weight of 1.5×10(4)Da, was obtained from the maturating-stage IV, V and VI fruiting body of Hericium erinaceus, exhibited higher macrophages stimulation activities, was able to upregulate the functional events mediated by activated macrophages, such as production of nitric oxide (NO). Monosaccharide composition analysis showed that HPB-3 comprised l-fucose, d-galactose and d-glucose in the ratio of 5.2:23.9:1. Its chemical structure was characterized by sugar and methylation analysis, along with (1)H and (13)C NMR spectroscopy, including (1)H-(1)H COSY, TOCSY, NOESY, HMQC and HMBC experiments. The results indicated that HPB-3 contained a-(1/6)-linked galactopyranosyl backbone, partially with a side chain composed of α-l-fucopyranose at the O-2 position. The predicted primary structure of the polysaccharide was established as below.

Enhancement of the neuroprotective activity of Hericium erinaceus mycelium co-cultivated with Allium sativum extract

This study investigated the neuroprotective effects of Hericium erinaceus mycelium enriched with garlic extract (HGE) on rat pheochromocytoma nerve cells (PC12). The survival rates of the PC12 nerve cells and the neurite-bearing cells after the addition of HGE were estimated as 3.5 × 10(3) viable cells/ml and 2.3 × 10(3) viable cells/ml, respectively, which were 50% and 30% higher, respectively, compared with the untreated group. For the in vivo ischemia experiments, after treatment with the HGE extract, the hippocampal CA1 region was more strongly stained (>20%) than the control group, and the HGE extract also promoted higher staining levels than HFB, HM and HGEF, and even the garlic extract. This result indicates that HGE must have neuroprotective effects. Furthermore, HGE greatly decreased p21 gene expression to approximately 70% of the control and decreased p21 gene expression to even lower levels compared with HM, HGEF and the garlic extract. This work suggests that a synergistic effect of the H. erinaceus mycelium and the garlic extract (mainly allicin) exist because the amount of allicin in HGE (5.81 µg/ml) was lower than the garlic extract itself (6.89 µg/ml).

Schisandra polysaccharide evokes immunomodulatory activity through TLR 4-mediated activation of macrophages

Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill has been used in traditional Chinese medicine for centuries. Previous studies have shown that Schisandra polysaccharide (SCPP11) has robust antitumor activity in vivo. In this study, the immunomodulatory activity and mechanisms of action of SCPP11 were investigated further to reveal its mechanism of action against tumors. Results showed that SCPP11 increased the thymus and spleen indices, pinocytic activity of peritoneal macrophages, and hemolysin formation in CTX-induced immunosuppressed mice. Moreover, SCPP11 significantly increased immunoglobulin levels, cytokines levels in vivo and induced RAW264.7 cells to secrete cytokines in vitro. RAW264.7 cells pretreated with SCPP11 significantly inhibited the proliferation of HepG-2 cells. In addition, SCPP11 promoted both the expression of iNOS protein and of iNOS and TNF-α mRNA. TLR-4 is a possible receptor for SCPP11-mediated macrophage activation. Therefore, the data suggest that SCPP11 exerted its antitumor activity by improving immune system functions through TLR-4-mediated up-regulation of NO and TNF-α.

Three sulphated polysaccharides isolated from the mucilage of mud snail, Bullacta exarata philippi: characterization and antitumour activity

Three sulphated polysaccharides, coded as BEMPA, BEMPB(1), BEMPB(2), were extracted from the mucilage of mud snail of Bullacta exarata and purified by DEAE-cellulose ion-exchange and size-exclusion chromatography. Structural analysis of purified polysaccharides by chemical and biochemical methods revealed BEMPA was a high (1→3,4)-linked mannose-containing polysaccharide with molecular weight of 22,977 Da. BEMPB(1), with molecular weight of 64,117 Da, was a high (1→3)-linked arabinose-containing polysaccharide. BEMPB(2) was mainly composed of (1→3,4)-linked mannose with molecular weight of 47,507Da. The comparison between sulphated polysaccharides and their desulphated products showed that sulphate substitutions of BEMPB(1) were deduced to be at the C-3 of (1→4)-linked mannose, while sulphate substitutions of BEMPA and BEMPB(2) were at C-4 of (1→3)-linked mannose. Furthermore, BEMPA exhibited highest inhibitory effects on growth of B-16 melanoma cells, and IC(50) were 31.1 μg/mL.

The genus Cordyceps: a chemical and pharmacological review

Objectives

Natural remedies are becoming increasingly popular and important in the public and scientific communities. Historically, natural remedies have been shown to present interesting biological and pharmacological activity and are used as chemotherapeutic agents. For centuries Cordyceps, which is a genus of more than 400 species in the family Clavicipitaceae, has been used in traditional Chinese medicine. This study highlights the chemistry and pharmacology of Cordyceps, especially Cordyceps sinensis (Berk.) Sacc. and C. militaris (Fr.) L. Information was obtained from Google Scholar and the journal databases PubMed and Scopus.

Key findings

Many bioactive components of Cordyceps have been extracted, such as cordycepin, cordycepic acid, ergosterol, polysaccharides, nucleosides and peptides. Studies show that Cordyceps and its active principles possess a wide range of pharmacological actions, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antitumour, antihyperglycaemic, antiapoptosis, immunomodulatory, nephroprotective, and hepatoprotective.

Summary

More research is required to discover the full extent of the activity of Cordyceps.