Exploring the Potential of Alginate-Gelatin-Diethylaminoethyl Cellulose-Fibrinogen based Bioink for 3D Bioprinting of Skin Tissue Constructs

Porcine plasma protein cold-set hydrogel crosslinked by genipin and the immunomodulatory, proliferation promoting and scar-remodeling in wound healing

Addressing the critical need for biocompatible and multifunctional wound dressings for chronic and non-healing wounds, cold-set hydrogel using natural biomacromolecules are potential candidates. This study developed a novel cold-set hydrogel of porcine plasma protein (PPP) through genipin (GP) as crosslinker and glucono delta-lactone (GDL) as acidifier. GP promoted hardness, springiness, water holding capacity (WHC) and modulus in a dose-dependent manner in the presence of GDL, and significantly enhanced microstructural density, integrity and anti-degradation, critical as wound dressing, achieving the optimal performance at 0.15 % GP and 0.2 % GDL. Subsequently, biocompatibility assessments revealed that the optimum PPP gel was low cytotoxicity and could support cell migration and proliferation, reduce apoptosis with dose-effect relationship of the filler PPP. Meanwhile, in vivo skin wound healing model indicated the efficacy in accelerating wound healing, reducing inflammation, and promoting tissue remodeling without excessive scar formation. These effects are attributed to the ability of PPP in the hydrogel to modulate local inflammatory responses, enhance angiogenesis, and balance extracellular matrix remodeling processes. In conclusion, this pioneering work establishes PPP cold-set hydrogels as promising candidates for advanced wound care solutions, combining the benefits of natural protein-based biomaterials with innovative crosslinking strategies to meet urgent clinical needs in regenerative medicine.

Alginate-gelatin composite hydrogels loading zeolitic imidazolate framework-8 (ZIF-8) nanoparticles on gauze for burn wound healing: In vitro and in vivo studies

This study addresses the limitations of traditional antibiotic treatments for burn wound dressings, which often lead to microbial resistance. It explores the development of innovative burn wound dressings by incorporating Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework-8 (ZIF-8) into alginate-gelatin (Al-Gl) hydrogels on gauze. Al-Gl patches with 0 %, 1 %, and 4 % ZIF-8 were fabricated and characterized using XRD, FTIR, FESEM, and EDX. Swelling, degradation, antibacterial activity, and biocompatibility were also evaluated, alongside in vivo wound healing using a Wistar rat model. FESEM confirmed ZIF-8 nanoparticles with hexagonal morphology (170-220 nm). The swelling ratio decreased from 600 % (Al-Gl 0 %) to 130 % (Al-Gl 4 %) over 10 h, and degradation rates increased from 50 % to over 70 %. Al-Gl 4 % patches demonstrated 99 % antibacterial efficacy against E. coli and S. aureus, compared to <5 % in Al-Gl 0 %. Biocompatibility was confirmed with over 90 % cell viability in MTT assays. In vivo studies showed Al-Gl 4 % achieved 89.40 % ± 3.21 % wound closure, significantly outperforming controls. Histological analyses confirmed enhanced tissue regeneration. These findings demonstrate that ZIF-8 significantly boosts antibacterial properties and wound healing, positioning ZIF-8 hydrogels as promising candidates for advanced burn wound care.

Advancements in 3D skin bioprinting: processes, bioinks, applications and sensor integration

This comprehensive review explores the multifaceted landscape of skin bioprinting, revolutionizing dermatological research. The applications of skin bioprinting utilizing techniques like extrusion-, droplet-, laser- and light-based methods, with specialized bioinks for skin biofabrication have been critically reviewed along with the intricate aspects of bioprinting hair follicles, sweat glands, and achieving skin pigmentation. Challenges remain with the need for vascularization, safety concerns, and the integration of automated processes for effective clinical translation. The review further investigates the incorporation of biosensor technologies, emphasizing their role in monitoring and enhancing the wound healing process. While highlighting the remarkable progress in the field, critical limitations and concerns are critically examined to provide a balanced perspective. This synthesis aims to guide scientists, engineers, and healthcare providers, fostering a deeper understanding of the current state, challenges, and future directions in skin bioprinting for transformative applications in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine.

Bioinks for bioprinting using plant-derived biomaterials

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting has revolutionized tissue engineering by enabling the fabrication of complex and functional human tissues and organs. An essential component of successful 3D bioprinting is the selection of an appropriate bioink capable of supporting cell proliferation and viability. Plant-derived biomaterials, because of their abundance, biocompatibility, and tunable properties, hold promise as bioink sources, thus offering advantages over animal-derived biomaterials, which carry immunogenic concerns. This comprehensive review explores and analyzes the potential of plant-derived biomaterials as bioinks for 3D bioprinting of human tissues. Modification and optimization of these materials to enhance printability and biological functionality are discussed. Furthermore, cancer research and drug testing applications of the use of plant-based biomaterials in bioprinting various human tissues such as bone, cartilage, skin, and vascular tissues are described. Challenges and limitations, including mechanical integrity, cell viability, resolution, and regulatory concerns, along with potential strategies to overcome them, are discussed. Additionally, this review provides insights into the potential use of plant-based decellularized ECM (dECM) as bioinks, future prospects, and emerging trends in the use of plant-derived biomaterials for 3D bioprinting applications. The potential of plant-derived biomaterials as bioinks for 3D bioprinting of human tissues is highlighted herein. However, further research is necessary to optimize their processing, standardize their properties, and evaluate their long-termin vivoperformance. Continued advancements in plant-derived biomaterials have the potential to revolutionize tissue engineering and facilitate the development of functional and regenerative therapies for diverse clinical applications.

3D-printing of alginate/gelatin scaffold loading tannic acid@ZIF-8 for wound healing: In vitro and in vivo studies

In the present study, ZIF-8 metal-organic framework (MOF) modified with Tannic acid (TA@ZIF-8) was synthesized and impregnated in alginate-gelatin (Alg-Gel) hydrogel. The Alg-Gel scaffolds containing 0, 5, and 10 % of TA@ZIF-8 were fabricated through the 3D printing method specifically denoted as Alg-Gel 0 %, Alg-Gel 5 %, and Alg-Gel 10 %. XRD, FTIR, FESEM, and EDX physically and chemically characterized the synthesized ZIF-8 and TA@ZIF-8 MOFs. Besides, Alg-Gel containing TA@ZIF-8 prepared scaffolds and their biological activity were also evaluated. SEM images verified the nano-size formation of MOFs. Improved swelling and decreased degradation rates after adding TA@ZIF-8 were also reported. Increased compression strength from 0.628 to 1.63 MPa in Alg-Gel 0 % and Alg-Gel 10 %, respectively, and a 2.19 increase in elastic modulus in Alg-Gel 10 % scaffolds were exhibited. Biological activity of scaffolds, including Live-dead and Cell adhesion, antibacterial, in-vivo, and immunohistochemistry assays, demonstrated desirable fibroblast cell proliferation and adhesion, increased bacterial growth inhibition zone, accelerated wound closure and improved expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines in Alg-Gel 10 % scaffolds. The findings of this study confirm that Alg-Gel 10 % scaffolds promote full-thickness wound healing and could be considered a potential candidate for full-thickness wound treatment purposes.

Recent Advancements of Bioinks for 3D Bioprinting of Human Tissues and Organs

3D bioprinting is recognized as a promising biomanufacturing technology that enables the reproducible and high-throughput production of tissues and organs through the deposition of different bioinks. Especially, bioinks based on loaded cells allow for immediate cellularity upon printing, providing opportunities for enhanced cell differentiation for organ manufacturing and regeneration. Thus, extensive applications have been found in the field of tissue engineering. The performance of the bioinks determines the functionality of the entire printed construct throughout the bioprinting process. It is generally expected that bioinks should support the encapsulated cells to achieve their respective cellular functions and withstand normal physiological pressure exerted on the printed constructs. The bioinks should also exhibit a suitable printability for precise deposition of the constructs. These characteristics are essential for the functional development of tissues and organs in bioprinting and are often achieved through the combination of different biomaterials. In this review, we have discussed the cutting-edge outstanding performance of different bioinks for printing various human tissues and organs in recent years. We have also examined the current status of 3D bioprinting and discussed its future prospects in relieving or curing human health problems.

Formulation and Characterization of a Novel Oxidized Alginate-Gelatin-Silk Fibroin Bioink with the Aim of Skin Regeneration

Background

In the present study, a novel bioink was suggested based on the oxidized alginate (OAlg), gelatin (GL), and silk fibroin (SF) hydrogels.

Methods

The composition of the bioink was optimized by the rheological and printability measurements, and the extrusion-based 3D bioprinting process was performed by applying the optimum OAlg-based bioink.

Results

The results demonstrated that the viscosity of bioink was continuously decreased by increasing the SF/GL ratio, and the bioink displayed a maximum achievable printability (92 ± 2%) at 2% (w/v) of SF and 4% (w/v) of GL. Moreover, the cellular behavior of the scaffolds investigated by MTT assay and live/dead staining confirmed the biocompatibility of the prepared bioink.

Conclusion

The bioprinted OAlg-GL-SF scaffold could have the potential for using in skin tissue engineering applications, which needs further exploration.

Formulation and Characterization of Gelatin Methacrylamide – Hydroxypropyl Methacrylate Based Bioink for Bioprinting Applications

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting has emerged as a revolutionary technology for constructing functional tissue equivalents/scaffolds for tissue engineering applications. Bioink design is a crucial element in 3D bioprinting, which typically comprises a mixture of biomaterials, biological molecules or cells followed by its printing and tissue maturation. An ideal bioink should possess suitable physicochemical, mechanical, rheological, and biological features of the target tissue. However, mimicking multifaceted compositions similar to native extracellular matrix (ECM) with bioactive milieu of soluble and non-soluble factors is challenging. Herein, we report the formulation and characterization of a bioink system, comprising methacrylamide modified gelatin (GelMA) and 2-hydroxylpropyl methacrylate (HPMA) with a cost-effective redox initiators based cross-linking. GelMA was synthesized by reacting gelatin with methacrylic anhydride (MA) and subsequently, copolymerized with HPMA at room temperature by redox mechanism. Various hydrogel formulations by varying GelMA: HPMA w/v% ratios (G:HP) were studied as 10:0 (G100HP0), 9.5:0.5 (G95HP05), 9:1 (G90HP10), 8:2 (G80HP20), and 6:4 (G60HP40), to identify the best bioink composition. The formulations were characterized for its opacity, chemical, rheological, mechanical, porosity and swelling properties and cytocompatibility as per ISO-10993 standards. Cell encapsulation studies using live/dead assay analyzed cell viability inside the handprinted and 3D printed constructs. The preliminary results indicate successful formulation of cytocompatible bioink for potential 3D bioprinting and biofabrication applications.

Injectable Crosslinked Genipin Hybrid Gelatin-PVA Hydrogels for Future Use as Bioinks in Expediting Cutaneous Healing Capacity: Physicochemical Characterisation and Cytotoxicity Evaluation

The irregular shape and depth of wounds could be the major hurdles in wound healing for the common three-dimensional foam, sheet, or film treatment design. The injectable hydrogel is a splendid alternate technique to enhance healing efficiency post-implantation via injectable or 3D-bioprinting technologies. The authentic combination of natural and synthetic polymers could potentially enhance the injectability and biocompatibility properties. Thus, the purpose of this study was to characterise a hybrid gelatin−PVA hydrogel crosslinked with genipin (GNP; natural crosslinker). In brief, gelatin (GE) and PVA were prepared in various concentrations (w/v): GE, GPVA3 (3% PVA), and GPVA5 (5% PVA), followed by a 0.1% (w/v) genipin (GNP) crosslink, to achieve polymerisation in three minutes. The physicochemical and biocompatibility properties were further evaluated. GPVA3_GNP and GPVA5_GNP with GNP demonstrated excellent physicochemical properties compared to GE_GNP and non-crosslinked hydrogels. GPVA5_GNP significantly displayed the optimum swelling ratio (621.1 ± 93.18%) and excellent hydrophilicity (38.51 ± 2.58°). In addition, GPVA5_GNP showed an optimum biodegradation rate (0.02 ± 0.005 mg/h) and the highest mechanical strength with the highest compression modulus (2.14 ± 0.06 MPa). In addition, the surface and cross-sectional view for scanning electron microscopy (SEM) displayed that all of the GPVA hydrogels have optimum average pore sizes (100−199 μm) with interconnected pores. There were no substantial changes in chemical analysis, including FTIR, XRD, and EDX, after PVA and GNP intervention. Furthermore, GPVA hydrogels influenced the cell biocompatibility, which successfully indicated >85% of cell viability. In conclusion, gelatin−PVA hydrogels crosslinked with GNP were proven to have excellent physicochemical, mechanical, and biocompatibility properties, as required for potential bioinks for chronic wound healing.

Silk Fibroin-Based Bioengineered Scaffold for Enabling Hemostasis and Skin Regeneration of Critical-Size Full-Thickness Heat-Induced Burn Wounds

Millions of people around the globe are affected by full-thickness skin injuries. A delay in the healing of such injuries can lead to the formation of chronic wounds, posing several clinical and economic challenges. Current strategies for wound care aim for skin regeneration and not merely skin repair or faster wound closure. The present study aimed to develop a bioactive wound-healing matrix comprising natural biomaterial silk fibroin (SF), clinical-grade human fibrin (FIB), and human hyaluronic acid (HA), resulting in SFFIBHA for regeneration of full-thickness burn wounds. A porous, hemostatic, self-adhesive, moisture-retentive, and biomimetic scaffold that promotes healing was the expected outcome. The study validated a terminal sterilization method, suggesting the stability and translational potential of the novel scaffold. Also, the study demonstrated the regenerative abilities of scaffolds using in vitro cell culture experiments and in vivo full-thickness burn wounds of critical size (4 cm × 4 cm) in a rabbit model. Under in vitro conditions, the scaffold enhanced primary dermal fibroblast adhesion and cell proliferation with regulated extracellular matrix (ECM) synthesis. In vivo, the scaffolds promoted healing with mature epithelium coverage involving intact basal cells, superficial keratinocytes, multilayers of keratohyalin, dermal regeneration with angiogenesis, and deposition of remodeled ECM in 28 days. The relative gene expression of the IL6 marker indicated transitions from inflammation to proliferation stage. In addition, we observed skin appendages and rete peg development in the SFFIBHA-treated wound tissues. Although wound closure was observed, neither negative (untreated/sham) nor positive (commercially available product; NeuSkin) control wounds developed skin appendages/rete pegs or native skin architecture. After 56 days, healing with organized ECM production enabled the recovery of mechanical properties of skin with higher tissue maturity in SFFIBHA-treated wounds. Thus, in a single application, the SFFIBHA scaffold proved to be an efficient biomimetic matrix that can guide burn wound regeneration. The developed matrix is a suture-less, hemostatic, off-the-shelf product for potential wound regenerative applications.

An Overview of Extracellular Matrix-Based Bioinks for 3D Bioprinting

As a microenvironment where cells reside, the extracellular matrix (ECM) has a complex network structure and appropriate mechanical properties to provide structural and biochemical support for the surrounding cells. In tissue engineering, the ECM and its derivatives can mitigate foreign body responses by presenting ECM molecules at the interface between materials and tissues. With the widespread application of three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting, the use of the ECM and its derivative bioinks for 3D bioprinting to replicate biomimetic and complex tissue structures has become an innovative and successful strategy in medical fields. In this review, we summarize the significance and recent progress of ECM-based biomaterials in 3D bioprinting. Then, we discuss the most relevant applications of ECM-based biomaterials in 3D bioprinting, such as tissue regeneration and cancer research. Furthermore, we present the status of ECM-based biomaterials in current research and discuss future development prospects.