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Notarnicola B, Tassielli G, Renzulli PA, Di Capua R, Astuto F, Riela S, Nacci A, Casiello M, Testa ML, Liotta LF, Pastore C. Life Cycle Assessment of a system for the extraction and transformation of Waste Water Treatment Sludge (WWTS)-derived lipids into biodiesel. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 883:163637. [PMID: 37098396 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, the demand for biofuels has been growing exponentially, as has the interest in biodiesel produced from organic matrices. Particularly interesting, due to its economic and environmental advantages, is the use of the lipids present in sewage sludge as a raw material for the synthesis of biodiesel. The possible processes of this biodiesel synthesis, starting from lipid matter, are represented by the conventional process with sulfuric acid, by the process with aluminium chloride hexahydrate and by processes that use solid catalysts such as those consisting of mixed metal oxides, functionalized halloysites, mesoporous perovskite and functionalized silicas. In literature there are numerous Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) studies concerning biodiesel production systems, but not many studies consider processes that start from sewage sludge and that use solid catalysts. In addition, no LCA studies were reported on solid acid catalysts nor on those based on mixed metal oxides which present some precious advantages, over the homogeneous analogous ones, such as higher recyclability, prevention of foams and corrosion phenomena, and an easier separation and purification of biodiesel product. This research work reports the results of a comparative LCA study applied to a system that uses a solvent free pilot plant for the extraction and transformation of lipids from sewage sludge via seven different scenarios that differ in the type of catalyst used. The biodiesel synthesis scenario using aluminium chloride hexahydrate as catalyst has the best environmental profile. Biodiesel synthesis scenarios using solid catalysts are worse due to higher methanol consumption which requires higher electricity consumption. The worst scenario is the one using functionalized halloysites. Further future developments of the research require the passage from the pilot scale to the industrial scale in order to obtain environmental results to be used for a more reliable comparison with the literature data.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Notarnicola
- Ionian Department of Law, Economics and Environment, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Taranto, Italy
| | - G Tassielli
- Ionian Department of Law, Economics and Environment, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Taranto, Italy
| | - P A Renzulli
- Ionian Department of Law, Economics and Environment, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Taranto, Italy
| | - R Di Capua
- Ionian Department of Law, Economics and Environment, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Taranto, Italy.
| | - F Astuto
- Ionian Department of Law, Economics and Environment, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Taranto, Italy
| | - S Riela
- Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche, Chimiche e Farmaceutiche (STEBICEF), V.le delle Scienze, Ed. 17, 90128 Palermo, Italy
| | - A Nacci
- Chemistry Department, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
| | - M Casiello
- Chemistry Department, University of Bari Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
| | - M L Testa
- CNR - Istituto per lo Studio dei Materiali Nanostrutturati (CNR-ISMN), Palermo, Italy
| | - L F Liotta
- CNR - Istituto per lo Studio dei Materiali Nanostrutturati (CNR-ISMN), Palermo, Italy
| | - C Pastore
- CNR - Istituto di Ricerca Sulle Acque (CNR-IRSA), Bari, Italy
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Testa ML, Tummino ML, Venezia AM, Russo M. Interesterification of Glyceryl Trioctanoate Catalyzed by Sulfonic Silica-Based Materials: Insight into the Role of Catalysts on the Reaction Mechanism. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:5121. [PMID: 37512395 PMCID: PMC10383590 DOI: 10.3390/ma16145121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2023] [Revised: 07/15/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023]
Abstract
In the present work, the acid-catalyzed interesterification of glyceryl trioctanoate (GTO) with ethyl acetate was investigated as a model reaction for the one-step production of biofuel and its additives. The activity of heterogeneous acid catalysts, such as silica-based propyl-sulfonic ones, was evaluated. Propyl-sulfonic groups were grafted on both amorphous and mesoporous silica oxide (SBA-15, KIT-6) using different functionalization processes and characterized by N2 adsorpion-desorption isotherm (BET), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy, and potentiometric titration. During the optimization of the reaction conditions with the most active catalyst (Am-Pr-SO3H), it was shown that the addition of ethanol allowed a total conversion of GTO together with 89% and 56% yield of ethyl octanoate and triacetin, respectively. The catalytic performance is strictly correlated to the catalyst features, in terms of both the acid capacity and the porous structure. Moreover, the catalytic performance is also affected by a synergistic mechanism between silanols and Pr-SO3H groups towards the 'silanolysis' of ethyl acetate. The overall results show that the presence of ethanol, the reaction time, and the amount of catalyst shifts the reaction towards the formation of the biofuel mixture composed by ethyl octanoate and triacetin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Luisa Testa
- Institute for the Study of Nanostructured Materials, ISMN-CNR, Via Ugo La Malfa 153, 90146 Palermo, Italy
| | - Maria Laura Tummino
- Institute of Intelligent Industrial Technologies and Systems for Advanced Manufacturing, Italian National Research Council (CNR-STIIMA), Corso G. Pella 16, 13900 Biella, Italy
| | - Anna Maria Venezia
- Institute for the Study of Nanostructured Materials, ISMN-CNR, Via Ugo La Malfa 153, 90146 Palermo, Italy
| | - Marco Russo
- Institute for the Study of Nanostructured Materials, ISMN-CNR, Via Ugo La Malfa 153, 90146 Palermo, Italy
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Nabgan W, Jalil AA, Nabgan B, Jadhav AH, Ikram M, Ul-Hamid A, Ali MW, Hassan NS. Sustainable biodiesel generation through catalytic transesterification of waste sources: a literature review and bibliometric survey. RSC Adv 2022; 12:1604-1627. [PMID: 35425206 PMCID: PMC8979057 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra07338a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Sustainable renewable energy production is being intensely disputed worldwide because fossil fuel resources are declining gradually. One solution is biodiesel production via the transesterification process, which is environmentally feasible due to its low-emission diesel substitute. Significant issues arising with biodiesel production are the cost of the processes, which has stuck its sustainability and the applicability of different resources. In this article, the common biodiesel feedstock such as edible and non-edible vegetable oils, waste oil and animal fats and their advantages and disadvantages were reviewed according to the Web of Science (WOS) database over the timeframe of 1970–2020. The biodiesel feedstock has water or free fatty acid, but it will produce soap by reacting free fatty acids with an alkali catalyst when they present in high portion. This reaction is unfavourable and decreases the biodiesel product yield. This issue can be solved by designing multiple transesterification stages or by employing acidic catalysts to prevent saponification. The second solution is cheaper than the first one and even more applicable because of the abundant source of catalytic materials from a waste product such as rice husk ash, chicken eggshells, fly ash, red mud, steel slag, and coconut shell and lime mud. The overview of the advantages and disadvantages of different homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts is summarized, and the catalyst promoters and prospects of biodiesel production are also suggested. This research provides beneficial ideas for catalyst synthesis from waste for the transesterification process economically, environmentally and industrially. Sustainable renewable energy production is being intensely disputed worldwide because fossil fuel resources are declining gradually.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Walid Nabgan
- School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 81310 Skudai Johor Malaysia.,Centre of Hydrogen Energy, Institute of Future Energy, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 81310 Skudai Johor Malaysia
| | - Aishah Abdul Jalil
- School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 81310 Skudai Johor Malaysia.,Centre of Hydrogen Energy, Institute of Future Energy, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 81310 Skudai Johor Malaysia
| | - Bahador Nabgan
- School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 81310 Skudai Johor Malaysia.,Centre of Hydrogen Energy, Institute of Future Energy, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 81310 Skudai Johor Malaysia
| | - Arvind H Jadhav
- Centre for Nano and Material Science, JAIN University Jain Global Campus Bangalore 562112 Karnataka India
| | - Muhammad Ikram
- Solar Cell Applications Research Lab, Department of Physics, Government College University Lahore 54000 Punjab Pakistan
| | - Anwar Ul-Hamid
- Core Research Facilities, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals Dhahran 31261 Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohamad Wijayanuddin Ali
- School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 81310 Skudai Johor Malaysia.,Centre of Hydrogen Energy, Institute of Future Energy, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 81310 Skudai Johor Malaysia
| | - Nurul Sahida Hassan
- School of Chemical and Energy Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 81310 Skudai Johor Malaysia.,Centre of Hydrogen Energy, Institute of Future Energy, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 81310 Skudai Johor Malaysia
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Sulfonic Acid-Functionalized Inorganic Materials as Efficient Catalysts in Various Applications: A Minireview. Catalysts 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/catal11101143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Acid catalysis is widely used in the chemical industry, and nowadays many efforts are being focused on replacing the more common homogeneous catalysts with heterogeneous ones in order to make greener the industrial processes. In this perspective, sulfonic solid acid materials represent a valid alternative to the homogenous mineral acid in several acid catalyzed reactions. In this minireview, an overview of the recent advances on the preparation, stability and application of these materials is reported. Special attention is addressed to the sustainability of the considered processes, starting from the catalyst’s preparation, the use of green solvents and reducing the possible reaction steps. Ways to tackle the main drawback represented by easy leaching of acid groups are described. For an easy catalyst recovery, the use of a magnetic core in a catalyst particle, with the related synthetic approaches, is also illustrated. Finally, a section is dedicated to the principal characterization techniques to identify the structural properties of the catalysts.
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Recent advances in preparation and application of sulfonic acid derivatives bonded to inorganic supports. JOURNAL OF THE IRANIAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s13738-020-01997-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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Aguado-Deblas L, Estevez R, Russo M, La Parola V, Bautista FM, Testa ML. Microwave-Assisted Glycerol Etherification Over Sulfonic Acid Catalysts. MATERIALS 2020; 13:ma13071584. [PMID: 32235560 PMCID: PMC7178245 DOI: 10.3390/ma13071584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Glycerol is the main by-product of biodiesel production. For this reason, its valorization into value-added products, by using green procedures, represents an important goal. Different sulfonic acid silica- or titania-based catalysts were prepared, characterized and tested in the glycerol etherification process, assisted by microwaves, in order to obtain biodiesel additives. The surface and structural properties of the catalysts were investigated by means of N2 adsorption isotherms, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and acid capacity measurements by X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (XRF). The best performance in terms of activity was achieved in the presence of the sulfonic function directly linked to the amorphous silica. By the correlation of the structure properties of the materials and their activity, the performance of the catalysts was shown to be influenced mainly by the surface area, pore volume and acidity. Recycling experiments performed over the most active systems showed that the sulfonic silica-based materials maintained their performance during several cycles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Aguado-Deblas
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidad de Córdoba, Campus de Rabanales, Ed. Marie Curie, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; (L.A.-D.); (R.E.); (F.M.B.)
| | - Rafael Estevez
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidad de Córdoba, Campus de Rabanales, Ed. Marie Curie, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; (L.A.-D.); (R.E.); (F.M.B.)
| | - Marco Russo
- Istituto per lo Studio dei Materiali Nanostrutturati, ISMN-CNR, Via Ugo La Malfa 153, 90146 Palermo, Italy; (M.R.); (V.L.P.)
| | - Valeria La Parola
- Istituto per lo Studio dei Materiali Nanostrutturati, ISMN-CNR, Via Ugo La Malfa 153, 90146 Palermo, Italy; (M.R.); (V.L.P.)
| | - Felipa M. Bautista
- Departamento de Química Orgánica, Universidad de Córdoba, Campus de Rabanales, Ed. Marie Curie, 14014 Córdoba, Spain; (L.A.-D.); (R.E.); (F.M.B.)
| | - Maria Luisa Testa
- Istituto per lo Studio dei Materiali Nanostrutturati, ISMN-CNR, Via Ugo La Malfa 153, 90146 Palermo, Italy; (M.R.); (V.L.P.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +39-0916-809-253
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Zacchi CHC, Vieira SS, Ardisson JD, Araujo MH, de Fátima Â. Synthesis of environmentally friendly, magnetic acid-type calix[4]arene catalyst for obtaining Biginelli adducts. JOURNAL OF SAUDI CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jscs.2019.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Bui TV, Umbarila SJ, Wang B, Sooknoi T, Li G, Chen B, Resasco DE. High-Temperature Grafting Silylation for Minimizing Leaching of Acid Functionality from Hydrophobic Mesoporous Silicas Used as Catalysts in the Liquid Phase. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2019; 35:6838-6852. [PMID: 31039313 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.9b00487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Ordered-hexagonal silica materials, such as Mobil crystalline material-41 and Santa Barbara amorphous-15, have important applications in heterogeneous catalysis and biomass conversion due to their chemical stability and mesoporous structure. Low-temperature grafting (LG) is one of the most common functionalization methods used to modify the acidity/basicity or hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity of the surface. However, the materials prepared by this method are prone to leaching of functional groups into the reaction medium. The exact nature of the leaching phenomenon has not been fully addressed in the literature. In this contribution, we have investigated this process at the molecular level by combining well-controlled reaction experiments and several characterization techniques (Fourier transform infrared, 1H-29Si cross-polarization magic-angle spinning NMR, X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis, and N2 adsorption-desorption). We have found that leaching is originated by the presence of terminal surface silanols, which render the catalysts susceptible to the attack of water and polar compounds. Hence, instead of simple detaching of functional groups, leaching can be better described as a partial dissolution of the surface layers of the silica, which of course also removes the functional groups during this process. Therefore, an effective strategy to minimize leaching is to reduce the density of free silanols via full functionalization of the surface. We propose a novel silylation method, high-temperature grafting, which allows the grafting process to be conducted at high temperatures (180 °C) under solvent-free conditions. By this method, a more complete silylation of surface silanols can be obtained. Consequently, the samples prepared by this high-temperature grafting method show to be highly stable during acid-catalyzed alkylation reaction, conducted under severe conditions (high temperature and in the presence of polar solvents).
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuong V Bui
- School of Chemical, Biological and Materials Engineering , University of Oklahoma , 100 East Boyd Street , Norman , Oklahoma 73019 , United States
| | - Santiago J Umbarila
- School of Chemical, Biological and Materials Engineering , University of Oklahoma , 100 East Boyd Street , Norman , Oklahoma 73019 , United States
| | - Bin Wang
- School of Chemical, Biological and Materials Engineering , University of Oklahoma , 100 East Boyd Street , Norman , Oklahoma 73019 , United States
| | - Tawan Sooknoi
- School of Chemical, Biological and Materials Engineering , University of Oklahoma , 100 East Boyd Street , Norman , Oklahoma 73019 , United States
| | - Gengnan Li
- School of Chemical, Biological and Materials Engineering , University of Oklahoma , 100 East Boyd Street , Norman , Oklahoma 73019 , United States
| | - Banghao Chen
- NMR Facilities, Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry , Florida State University , 95 Chieftan Way Rm. 118 DLC , Tallahassee , Florida 32306 , United States
| | - Daniel E Resasco
- School of Chemical, Biological and Materials Engineering , University of Oklahoma , 100 East Boyd Street , Norman , Oklahoma 73019 , United States
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Effective transesterification of triglyceride with sulphonated modified SBA-15 (SBA-15-SO3H): Screening, process and mechanism. Inorganica Chim Acta 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ica.2018.07.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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10
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Structural and surface properties of heterogeneous catalysts: Nature of the oxide carrier and supported particle size effects. Catal Today 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cattod.2016.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Shagufta, Ahmad I, Dhar R. Sulfonic Acid-Functionalized Solid Acid Catalyst in Esterification and Transesterification Reactions. CATALYSIS SURVEYS FROM ASIA 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10563-017-9226-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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12
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Alaba PA, Sani YM, Ashri Wan Daud WM. Efficient biodiesel production via solid superacid catalysis: a critical review on recent breakthrough. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra08399d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Biodiesel produced from triglycerides and/or free fatty acids (FFAs) by transesterification and esterification has attracted immense attention during the past decades as a biodegradable, renewable and sustainable fuel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Adeniyi Alaba
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- University of Malaya
- 50603 Kuala Lumpur
- Malaysia
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Transesterification of waste cooking palm oil and palm oil to fatty acid methyl ester using cesium-modified silica catalyst. J Taiwan Inst Chem Eng 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtice.2015.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Sulfonic acid-functionalized mesoporous silica (SBA-Pr-SO3H) as solid acid catalyst in organic reactions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molcata.2014.10.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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Silica functionalized propyl sulfonic acid (SiO2-Pr-SO3H): An efficient catalyst in organic reactions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molcata.2014.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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16
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Tian J, Chen L, Zhang C, Yan X, Li Y. Continuous synthesis of triacetonamine over sulfonic acid-functionalized mesoporous silicas. RSC Adv 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra00648h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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