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Habiballah S, Chambers J, Meek E, Reisfeld B. The in silico identification of novel broad-spectrum antidotes for poisoning by organophosphate anticholinesterases. J Comput Aided Mol Des 2023; 37:755-764. [PMID: 37796381 PMCID: PMC11251483 DOI: 10.1007/s10822-023-00537-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/06/2023]
Abstract
Owing to their potential to cause serious adverse health effects, significant efforts have been made to develop antidotes for organophosphate (OP) anticholinesterases, such as nerve agents. To be optimally effective, antidotes must not only reactivate inhibited target enzymes, but also have the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Progress has been made toward brain-penetrating acetylcholinesterase reactivators through the development of a new group of substituted phenoxyalkyl pyridinium oximes. To help in the selection and prioritization of compounds for future synthesis and testing within this class of chemicals, and to identify candidate broad-spectrum molecules, an in silico framework was developed to systematically generate structures and screen them for reactivation efficacy and BBB penetration potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sohaib Habiballah
- Chemical and Biological Engineering, Colorado State University, 1370 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523-1370, USA
| | - Janice Chambers
- Center for Environmental Health Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, 240 Wise Center Drive, Mississippi State, MS, 39762-6100, USA
| | - Edward Meek
- Center for Environmental Health Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State University, 240 Wise Center Drive, Mississippi State, MS, 39762-6100, USA
| | - Brad Reisfeld
- Chemical and Biological Engineering, Colorado State University, 1370 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523-1370, USA.
- Colorado School of Public Health, Colorado State University, 1612 Campus Delivery, Fort Collins, CO, 80523-1612, USA.
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Chaubey K, Alam SI, Waghmare CK, Bhattacharya BK. Differential phosphoproteome analysis of rat brain regions after organophosphorus compound sarin intoxication. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2023; 12:253-263. [PMID: 37125338 PMCID: PMC10141768 DOI: 10.1093/toxres/tfad013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/15/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Sarin is a highly toxic organophosphorus nerve agent that irreversibly inhibits neuronal enzyme acetylcholinesterase. In the prevailing scenario, it is of paramount importance to develop early diagnosis and medical countermeasures for sarin exposure. A deeper understanding of the molecular mechanism of sarin intoxication and perturbations in the associated cellular processes is likely to provide valuable clues for the elucidation of diagnostic markers and therapeutic targets for sarin exposure. Methods Present study, uncovered the changes in phosphorylation patterns of multiple proteins in different rat brain regions after sarin intoxication using 2-DE/MS approach. It provided a holistic view of the phosphorylation-mediated changes in the cellular proteome and highlighted various signaling and response pathways affected at an early time point of sarin intoxication. Results We found total 22 proteins in the cortex, 25 proteins in the corpus striatum, and 17 proteins in the hippocampus, showed ≥1.5 fold changes (hyper- or hypo- phosphorylated) with respect to control, either at 2.5 h or 1 d after sarin exposure. These results indicated the differential expression of phosphoproteins involved in protein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum, carbon metabolism, metabolic function, and energy metabolism. Conclusion Four candidates (protein disulfide-isomerase A3, heat shock cognate 71 kDa protein, alpha-enolase, and creatine kinase B-type), hyperphosphorylated in all three brain regions, can be further studied to understand the molecular mechanism behind neurodegenerative changes mediated by sarin exposure. The study sheds light on major pathogenic processes initiated during sarin intoxication and provides putative diagnostic markers/therapeutic targets for further validation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kalyani Chaubey
- Department of Biochemistry, Defence Research & Development Establishment (DRDE), Jhansi Road, Gwalior 474002, India
- Department of Psychiatry, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Syed Imteyaz Alam
- Department of Biochemistry, Defence Research & Development Establishment (DRDE), Jhansi Road, Gwalior 474002, India
| | - Chandra Kant Waghmare
- Department of Biochemistry, Defence Research & Development Establishment (DRDE), Jhansi Road, Gwalior 474002, India
| | - Bijoy K Bhattacharya
- Department of Biochemistry, Defence Research & Development Establishment (DRDE), Jhansi Road, Gwalior 474002, India
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Massey N, Vasanthi SS, Samidurai M, Gage M, Rao N, Meyer C, Thippeswamy T. 1400 W, a selective inducible nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, mitigates early neuroinflammation and nitrooxidative stress in diisopropylfluorophosphate-induced short-term neurotoxicity rat model. Front Mol Neurosci 2023; 16:1125934. [PMID: 37008784 PMCID: PMC10064070 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2023.1125934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Organophosphate nerve agent (OPNA) exposure induces acute and long-term neurological deficits. OPNA exposure at sub-lethal concentrations induces irreversible inhibition of acetylcholinesterase and cholinergic toxidrome and develops status epilepticus (SE). Persistent seizures have been associated with increased production of ROS/RNS, neuroinflammation, and neurodegeneration. A total of 1400W is a novel small molecule, which irreversibly inhibits inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and has been shown to effectively reduce ROS/RNS generation. In this study, we investigated the effects of 1400W treatment for a week or two weeks at 10 mg/kg or 15 mg/kg per day in the rat diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP) model. 1400W significantly reduced the number of microglia, astroglia, and NeuN+FJB positive cells compared to the vehicle in different regions of the brain. 1400W also significantly reduced nitrooxidative stress markers and proinflammatory cytokines in the serum. However, neither of the two concentrations of 1400W for two weeks of treatment had any significant effect on epileptiform spike rate and spontaneous seizures during the treatment period in mixed sex cohorts, males, or females. No significant sex differences were found in response to DFP exposure or 1400W treatment. In conclusion, 1400W treatment at 15 mg/kg per day for two weeks was more effective in significantly reducing DFP-induced nitrooxidative stress, neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative changes.
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Cruz-Hernandez A, Roney A, Goswami DG, Tewari-Singh N, Brown JM. A review of chemical warfare agents linked to respiratory and neurological effects experienced in Gulf War Illness. Inhal Toxicol 2022; 34:412-432. [PMID: 36394251 PMCID: PMC9832991 DOI: 10.1080/08958378.2022.2147257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Over 40% of veterans from the Persian Gulf War (GW) (1990-1991) suffer from Gulf War Illness (GWI). Thirty years since the GW, the exposure and mechanism contributing to GWI remain unclear. One possible exposure that has been attributed to GWI are chemical warfare agents (CWAs). While there are treatments for isolated symptoms of GWI, the number of respiratory and cognitive/neurological issues continues to rise with minimum treatment options. This issue does not only affect veterans of the GW, importantly these chronic multisymptom illnesses (CMIs) are also growing amongst veterans who have served in the Afghanistan-Iraq war. What both wars have in common are their regions and inhaled exposures. In this review, we will describe the CWA exposures, such as sarin, cyclosarin, and mustard gas in both wars and discuss the various respiratory and neurocognitive issues experienced by veterans. We will bridge the respiratory and neurological symptoms experienced to the various potential mechanisms described for each CWA provided with the most up-to-date models and hypotheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Cruz-Hernandez
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Colorado, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
| | - Andrew Roney
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Dinesh G Goswami
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Neera Tewari-Singh
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Osteopathic Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA
| | - Jared M Brown
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, The University of Colorado, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA
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Patterson KM, Vajdic TG, Martinez GJ, Feller AG, Reynolds JM. IL-17 and IL-17C Signaling Protects the Intestinal Epithelium against Diisopropyl Fluorophosphate Exposure in an Acute Model of Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses. Immune Netw 2021; 21:e35. [PMID: 34796039 PMCID: PMC8568910 DOI: 10.4110/in.2021.21.e35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Revised: 10/20/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Gulf War Veterans' Illnesses (GWI) encompasses a broad range of unexplained symptomology specific to Veterans of the Persian Gulf War. Gastrointestinal (GI) distress is prominent in veterans with GWI and often presents as irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). Neurotoxins, including organophosphorus pesticides and sarin gas, are believed to have contributed to the development of GWI, at least in a subset of Veterans. However, the effects of such agents have not been extensively studied for their potential impact to GI disorders and immunological stability. Here we utilized an established murine model of GWI to investigate deleterious effects of diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP) exposure on the mucosal epithelium in vivo and in vitro. In vivo, acute DFP exposure negatively impacts the mucosal epithelium by reducing tight junction proteins and antimicrobial peptides as well as altering intestinal microbiome composition. Furthermore, DFP treatment reduced the expression of IL-17 in the colonic epithelium. Conversely, both IL-17 and IL-17C treatment could combat the negative effects of DFP and other cholinesterase inhibitors in murine intestinal organoid cells. Our findings demonstrate that acute exposure to DFP can result in rapid deterioration of mechanisms protecting the GI tract from disease. These results are relevant to suspected GWI exposures and could help explain the propensity for GI disorders in GWI Veterans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen M. Patterson
- Center for Cancer Cell Biology, Immunology, and Infection, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Tyler G. Vajdic
- Center for Cancer Cell Biology, Immunology, and Infection, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Gustavo J. Martinez
- Center for Cancer Cell Biology, Immunology, and Infection, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Axel G. Feller
- Gastroenterology Section, Captain James A. Lovell Federal Health Care Center, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
| | - Joseph M. Reynolds
- Center for Cancer Cell Biology, Immunology, and Infection, Chicago Medical School, Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine and Science, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
- Gastroenterology Section, Captain James A. Lovell Federal Health Care Center, North Chicago, IL 60064, USA
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Acute administration of diazepam or midazolam minimally alters long-term neuropathological effects in the rat brain following acute intoxication with diisopropylfluorophosphate. Eur J Pharmacol 2020; 886:173538. [PMID: 32898549 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2020.173538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Acute intoxication with organophosphorus cholinesterase inhibitors (OPs) can trigger seizures that rapidly progress to life-threatening status epilepticus. Diazepam, long considered the standard of care for treating OP-induced seizures, is being replaced by midazolam. Whether midazolam is more effective than diazepam in mitigating the persistent effects of acute OP intoxication has not been rigorously evaluated. We compared the efficacy of diazepam vs. midazolam in preventing persistent neuropathology in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats acutely intoxicated with the OP diisopropylfluorophosphate (DFP). Subjects were administered pyridostigmine bromide (0.1 mg/kg, i.p.) 30 min prior to injection with DFP (4 mg/kg, s.c.) or vehicle (saline) followed 1 min later by atropine sulfate (2 mg/kg, i.m.) and pralidoxime (25 mg/kg, i.m.), and 40 min later by diazepam (5 mg/kg, i.p.), midazolam (0.73 mg/kg, i.m.), or vehicle. At 3 and 6 months post-exposure, neurodegeneration, reactive astrogliosis, microglial activation, and oxidative stress were assessed in multiple brain regions using quantitative immunohistochemistry. Brain mineralization was evaluated by in vivo micro-computed tomography (micro-CT). Acute DFP intoxication caused persistent neurodegeneration, neuroinflammation, and brain mineralization. Midazolam transiently mitigated neurodegeneration, and both benzodiazepines partially protected against reactive astrogliosis in a brain region-specific manner. Neither benzodiazepine attenuated microglial activation or brain mineralization. These findings indicate that neither benzodiazepine effectively protects against persistent neuropathological changes, and suggest that midazolam is not significantly better than diazepam. Overall, this study highlights the need for improved neuroprotective strategies for treating humans in the event of a chemical emergency involving OPs.
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de A. Cavalcante SF, Simas ABC, Kuča K. Nerve Agents’ Surrogates: Invaluable Tools for Development of Acetylcholinesterase Reactivators. CURR ORG CHEM 2019. [DOI: 10.2174/1385272823666190806114017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The use of nerve agents as warfare and in terrorist acts has drawn much attention from the governments and societies. Such toxic organophosphorus compounds are listed in Chemical Weapons Convention as Schedule 1 chemicals. The discussion about the chemical identity of the elusive Novichok agents, more potent compounds than best known G- and V-Agents, which have been implicated in recent rumorous assassination plots, clearly demonstrating the importance of the matter. Furthermore, accidents with pesticides or misuse thereof have been a pressing issue in many countries. In this context, the continued development of novel cholinesterase reactivators, antidotes for organophosphorus poisoning, a rather restricted class of pharmaceutical substances, is warranted. Testing of novel candidates may require use of actual nerve agents. Nonetheless, only a few laboratories comply with the requirements for storing, possession and manipulation of such toxic chemicals. To overcome such limitations, nerve agents’ surrogates may be a useful alternative, as they undergo the same reaction with cholinesterases, yielding similar adducts, allowing assays with novel antidote candidates, among other applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samir F. de A. Cavalcante
- Walter Mors Institute of Research on Natural Products (IPPN), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Alessandro B. C. Simas
- Walter Mors Institute of Research on Natural Products (IPPN), Federal University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Kamil Kuča
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Hradec Kralove, Hradec Kralove, Czech Republic
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Belgrad J, Dutta DJ, Bromley-Coolidge S, Kelly KA, Michalovicz LT, Sullivan KA, O'Callaghan JP, Fields RD. Oligodendrocyte involvement in Gulf War Illness. Glia 2019; 67:2107-2124. [PMID: 31339622 PMCID: PMC6899710 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Low level sarin nerve gas and other anti‐cholinesterase agents have been implicated in Gulf War illness (GWI), a chronic multi‐symptom disorder characterized by cognitive, pain and fatigue symptoms that continues to afflict roughly 32% of veterans from the 1990–1991 Gulf War. How disrupting cholinergic synaptic transmission could produce chronic illness is unclear, but recent research indicates that acetylcholine also mediates communication between axons and oligodendrocytes. Here we investigated the hypothesis that oligodendrocyte development is disrupted by Gulf War agents, by experiments using the sarin‐surrogate acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DFP). The effects of corticosterone, which is used in some GWI animal models, were also investigated. The data show that DFP decreased both the number of mature and dividing oligodendrocytes in the rat prefrontal cortex (PFC), but differences were found between PFC and corpus callosum. The differences seen between the PFC and corpus callosum likely reflect the higher percentage of proliferating oligodendroglia in the adult PFC. In cell culture, DFP also decreased oligodendrocyte survival through a non‐cholinergic mechanism. Corticosterone promoted maturation of oligodendrocytes, and when used in combination with DFP it had protective effects by increasing the pool of mature oligodendrocytes and decreasing proliferation. Cell culture studies indicate direct effects of both DFP and corticosterone on OPCs, and by comparison with in vivo results, we conclude that in addition to direct effects, systemic effects and interruption of neuron–glia interactions contribute to the detrimental effects of GW agents on oligodendrocytes. Our results demonstrate that oligodendrocytes are an important component of the pathophysiology of GWI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jillian Belgrad
- Section on Nervous System Development and Plasticity, The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Dipankar J Dutta
- Section on Nervous System Development and Plasticity, The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland.,The Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Inc., Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Samantha Bromley-Coolidge
- Section on Nervous System Development and Plasticity, The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Kimberly A Kelly
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morgantown, West Virginia
| | | | - Kimberly A Sullivan
- Department of Environmental Health, Boston University School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts
| | | | - Richard Douglas Fields
- Section on Nervous System Development and Plasticity, The Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD), National Institutes of Health (NIH), Bethesda, Maryland
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Babele P, Verma S, Kumar RB, Bhagyawant SS, Kamboj DV, Alam SI. Elucidation of protein biomarkers in plasma and urine for epsilon toxin exposure in mouse model. Anaerobe 2019; 59:76-91. [PMID: 31145997 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2019.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2019] [Revised: 05/02/2019] [Accepted: 05/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (ETX) is the major virulence determinant of C. perfringens type B or type D strains, causing diseases in animals, besides being a listed biological and toxin warfare (BTW) agent. Keeping in mind the high lethality and the rapid onset of clinical manifestations, early diagnosis of epsilon toxin exposure is of paramount importance for implementation of appropriate medical countermeasures. Using a 2DE-MS approach, the present study is the first comprehensive proteomic elucidation of ETX-induced protein markers in the mouse model, providing putative targets for early diagnosis of ETX exposure. A total of 52 unique proteins showing ETX-induced modulations were identified in plasma and urine samples. Fibrinogen, apolipoprotein, serum amyloid protein, plasminogen, serum albumin, glutathione peroxidase, transferrin, major urinary protein 2, haptoglobin, transthyretin, and vitamin D-binding protein were among the proteins observed in more than one dataset with altered abundance after the ETX-intoxication. The predicted localization, function, and interaction of the ETX-modulated proteins in the plasma and urine indicated involvement of multiple pathways; extracellular proteins, followed by macromolecular complexes associated with blood coagulation and plasminogen activating cascade, being the most prominent among others. The putative markers elucidated here warrants further validation and can be of immense value for the early diagnosis of ETX exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prabhakar Babele
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Gwalior, 474002, India
| | - Smarti Verma
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Gwalior, 474002, India
| | - Ravi Bhushan Kumar
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Gwalior, 474002, India
| | | | - Dev Vrat Kamboj
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Gwalior, 474002, India
| | - Syed Imteyaz Alam
- Biotechnology Division, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Gwalior, 474002, India.
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