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Osthoff G, Wiese I, Deacon F. African Elephant Milk Short Saccharide and Metabolite Composition and Their Changes over Lactation. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13030544. [PMID: 36766431 PMCID: PMC9913514 DOI: 10.3390/ani13030544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 01/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Elephant milk composition is unique, as are its changes over lactation. Presented here is the milk non-dedicated metabolite composition of three African elephants. Their lactation times are overlapping and span day one to thirty months. Metabolites were identified and quantified by 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Lactose and short oligosaccharides are a large component of the metabolites, with lacto-N-difucohexaose I as the major oligosaccharide. These were followed by metabolites of lipids, amino acids, and the citric acid cycle. The content of lactose, lacto-N-difucohexaose I, 2'-fucosyllactose, and some unidentified oligosaccharides decrease over lactation, while that of difucosyllactose and other unidentified ones increase. The high content of glutamate, as a glucogenic amino acid, supported the uprated synthesis of saccharides by the milk gland cells. The content of succinate and choline increase over lactation, indicating higher energy expenditure and phospholipid synthesis during later lactation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gernot Osthoff
- Department of Microbiology and Biochemistry, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 9301, South Africa
- Correspondence: ; Fax: +27-5140-12216
| | - Irenie Wiese
- Department of Animal, Wildlife and Grassland Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 9301, South Africa
| | - Francois Deacon
- Department of Animal, Wildlife and Grassland Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 9301, South Africa
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Evolution of milk oligosaccharides: Origin and selectivity of the ratio of milk oligosaccharides to lactose among mammals. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2021; 1866:130012. [PMID: 34536507 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2021.130012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The carbohydrate fraction of mammalian milk is constituted of lactose and oligosaccharides, most of which contain a lactose unit at their reducing ends. Although lactose is the predominant saccharide in the milk of most eutherians, oligosaccharides significantly predominate over lactose in the milk of monotremes and marsupials. SCOPE OF REVIEW This review describes the most likely process by which lactose and milk oligosaccharides were acquired during the evolution of mammals and the mechanisms by which these saccharides are digested and absorbed by the suckling neonates. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS During the evolution of mammals, c-type lysozyme evolved to α-lactalbumin. This permitted the biosynthesis of lactose by modulating the substrate specificity of β4galactosyltransferase 1, thus enabling the concomitant biosynthesis of milk oligosaccharides through the activities of several glycosyltransferases using lactose as an acceptor. In most eutherian mammals the digestion of lactose to glucose and galactose is achieved through the action of intestinal lactase (β-galactosidase), which is located within the small intestinal brush border. This enzyme, however, is absent in neonatal monotremes and macropod marsupials. It has therefore been proposed that in these species the absorption of milk oligosaccharides is achieved by pinocytosis or endocytosis, after which digestion occurs through the actions of several lysosomal acid glycosidases. This process would enable the milk oligosaccharides of monotremes and marsupials to be utilized as a significant energy source for the suckling neonates. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE The evolution and significance of milk oligosaccharides is discussed in relation to the evolution of mammals.
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Osthoff G, Madende M, Hugo A, Butler HJB. Milk evolution with emphasis on the Atlantogenata. AFRICAN ZOOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/15627020.2020.1798281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gernot Osthoff
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Moses Madende
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Arnold Hugo
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
| | - Hendrik JB Butler
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa
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Kobeni S, Osthoff G, Madende M, Hugo A, Marabini L. The Dynamic Changes of African Elephant Milk Composition over Lactation. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10060948. [PMID: 32486163 PMCID: PMC7341503 DOI: 10.3390/ani10060948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary The composition of elephant milk differs from all other mammals, as well as between Asian and African elephants. The changes of this milk composition during lactation is also unique. Apart from the major sugar being lactose, sugars also occur as longer chains. With progressed lactation, the content of the lactose decreases, and oligosaccharides become the major sugar component. The content of protein, minerals, and fat also increase during lactation, resulting in an increase in total energy. The fatty acid composition changes during lactation to a high content of saturated acids. Vitamin E occurs at low levels in this milk, and vitamins A, D3, and K occur in trace amounts. The combined data of 14 African elephants over 25 months of lactation are presented. The reported changes may contribute to improving the management strategies of captive African elephants to optimize the nutrition, health, and survival of elephant calves. Abstract The combined data of milk composition of 14 African elephants over 25 months of lactation are presented. The milk density was constant during lactation. The total protein content increased with progressing lactation, with caseins as the predominant protein fraction. The total carbohydrates steadily decreased, with the oligosaccharides becoming the major fraction. Lactose and isoglobotriose reached equal levels at mid lactation. The milk fat content increased during lactation, as did the caprylic and capric acids, while the 12 carbon and longer fatty acids decreased. The fatty acid composition of the milk phospholipids fluctuated, and their total saturated fatty acid composition was low compared to the triacylglycerides. The milk ash and content of the major minerals, Na, K, Mg, P, and Ca, increased. Vitamin content was low, Vitamin E occurred in quantifiable amounts, with traces of vitamins A, D3, and K. The energy levels of African elephant milk did not change much in the first ten months of lactation, but they increased thereafter due to the increase in protein and fat content. The overall changes in milk composition appeared to be in two stages: (a) strong changes up to approximately 12 months of lactation and (b) little or no changes thereafter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sibusiso Kobeni
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa; (S.K.); (M.M.); (A.H.)
| | - Gernot Osthoff
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa; (S.K.); (M.M.); (A.H.)
- Correspondence: ; Fax: +27-5140-12216
| | - Moses Madende
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa; (S.K.); (M.M.); (A.H.)
| | - Arnold Hugo
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein 9300, South Africa; (S.K.); (M.M.); (A.H.)
| | - Lisa Marabini
- AWARE Trust, 16 Southam Road, Greystone Park, Harare, Zimbabwe;
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Levonis SM, Pittet J, Pointon BCM, Schweiker SS. Combining versatility with cost-effectiveness: Determination of both free and bound sialic acids, N-acetylneuraminic and N-glycolylneuraminic in unprocessed bovine milk. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2019; 1104:130-133. [PMID: 30469128 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2018.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Revised: 11/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Stephan M Levonis
- Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Bond University, Gold Coast, 4229, Queensland, Australia.
| | - Julie Pittet
- Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Bond University, Gold Coast, 4229, Queensland, Australia
| | - Bethaney C M Pointon
- Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Bond University, Gold Coast, 4229, Queensland, Australia
| | - Stephanie S Schweiker
- Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Bond University, Gold Coast, 4229, Queensland, Australia
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Takatsu Z, Tsuda M, Yamada A, Matsumoto H, Takai A, Takeda Y, Takase M. Elephant's breast milk contains large amounts of glucosamine. J Vet Med Sci 2016; 79:524-533. [PMID: 28049867 PMCID: PMC5383172 DOI: 10.1292/jvms.16-0450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Hand-reared elephant calves that are nursed with milk substitutes sometimes suffer bone fractures, probably due to problems associated with nutrition,
exercise, sunshine levels and/or genetic factors. As we were expecting the birth of an Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), we analyzed elephant’s
breast milk to improve the milk substitutes for elephant calves. Although there were few nutritional differences between conventional substitutes and elephant’s
breast milk, we found a large unknown peak in the breast milk during high-performance liquid chromatography-based amino acid analysis and determined that it was
glucosamine (GlcN) using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. We detected the following GlcN concentrations [mean ± SD] (mg/100 g) in milk hydrolysates
produced by treating samples with 6M HCl for 24 hr at 110°C: four elephant’s breast milk samples: 516 ± 42, three cow’s milk mixtures: 4.0 ± 2.2, three mare’s
milk samples: 12 ± 1.2 and two human milk samples: 38. The GlcN content of the elephant’s milk was 128, 43 and 14 times greater than those of the cow’s, mare’s
and human milk, respectively. Then, we examined the degradation of GlcN during 0–24 hr hydrolyzation with HCl. We estimated that elephant’s milk contains
>880 mg/100 g GlcN, which is similar to the levels of major amino acids in elephant’s milk. We concluded that a novel GlcN-containing milk substitute should
be developed for elephant calves. The efficacy of GlcN supplements is disputed, and free GlcN is rare in bodily fluids; thus, the optimal molecular form of GlcN
requires a further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zenta Takatsu
- Morinyu Sunworld, Research & Information Center, Morinaga Milk, 5-1-83, Higashihara, Zama, Kanagawa 252-8583, Japan
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Madende M, Osthoff G, Patterton HG, Patterton HE, Martin P, Opperman DJ. Characterization of casein and alpha lactalbumin of African elephant (Loxodonta africana) milk. J Dairy Sci 2015; 98:8308-18. [PMID: 26454297 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2014-9195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2014] [Accepted: 08/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The current research reports partial characterization of the caseins and α-lactalbumin (α-LA) of the African elephant with proposed unique structure-function properties. Extensive research has been carried out to understand the structure of the casein micelles. Crystallographic structure elucidation of caseins and casein micelles is not possible. Consequently, several models have been developed in an effort to describe the casein micelle, specifically of cow milk. Here we report the characterization of African elephant milk caseins. The κ-caseins and β-caseins were investigated, and their relative ratio was found to be approximately 1:8.5, whereas α-caseins were not detected. The gene sequence of β-casein in the NCBI database was revisited, and a different sequence in the N-terminal region is proposed. Amino acid sequence alignment and hydropathy plots showed that the κ-casein of African elephant milk is similar to that of other mammals, whereas the β-casein is similar to the human protein, and displayed a section of unique AA composition and additional hydrophilic regions compared with bovine caseins. Elephant milk is destabilized by 62% alcohol, and it is speculated that the β-casein characteristics may allow maintenance of the colloidal nature of the casein micelle, a role that was previously only associated with κ-casein. The oligosaccharide content of milk was reported to be low in dairy animals but high in some other species such as humans and elephants. In the milk of the African elephant, lactose and oligosaccharides both occur at high levels. These levels are typically related to the content of α-LA in the mammary gland and thus point to a specialized carbohydrate synthesis, where the whey protein α-LA plays a role. We report the characterization of African elephant α-LA. Homology modeling of the α-LA showed that it is structurally similar to crystal structures of other mammalian species, which in turn may be an indication that its functional properties, such as lactose synthesis, should not be impaired.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Madende
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, PO Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300, Republic of South Africa
| | - G Osthoff
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, PO Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300, Republic of South Africa.
| | - H-G Patterton
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, PO Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300, Republic of South Africa
| | - H E Patterton
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, PO Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300, Republic of South Africa
| | - P Martin
- UMR1313 Génétique Animale et Biologie Integrative, Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, Domaine de Vilvert - Bâtiment 221, 78350 Jouy-en-Josas, France
| | - D J Opperman
- Department of Microbial, Biochemical and Food Biotechnology, University of the Free State, PO Box 339, Bloemfontein 9300, Republic of South Africa
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Recent Advances in Studies on Milk Oligosaccharides of Cows and Other Domestic Farm Animals. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2014; 77:455-66. [DOI: 10.1271/bbb.120810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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Praticò G, Capuani G, Tomassini A, Baldassarre ME, Delfini M, Miccheli A. Exploring human breast milk composition by NMR-based metabolomics. Nat Prod Res 2013; 28:95-101. [PMID: 24079341 DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2013.843180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Breast milk is a complex fluid evolutionarily adapted to satisfy the nutritional requirements of growing infants. In addition, milk biochemical and immunological components protect newborns against infective agents in the new environment. Human milk oligosaccharides, the third most abundant component of breast milk, are believed to modulate the microbiota composition, thus influencing a wide range of physiological processes of the infant. Human milk also contains a number of other bioactive compounds, the functional role of which has not yet been clearly elucidated. In this scenario, NMR-based metabolic profiling can provide a rapid characterisation of breast milk composition, thus allowing a better understanding of its nutritional properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Praticò
- a Department of Chemistry , Sapienza University of Rome , p.le Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome , Italy
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Eisert R, Oftedal OT, Barrell GK. Milk Composition in the Weddell SealLeptonychotes weddellii: Evidence for a Functional Role of Milk Carbohydrates in Pinnipeds. Physiol Biochem Zool 2013; 86:159-75. [DOI: 10.1086/669036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Abstract
Milk is an important fluid in glycobiology because it contains a number of short carbohydrate chains either free or as glycoconjugates. These compounds as a class are the most abundant component and benefit the infant by developing and maintaining the infant's gut flora. New and emerging methods for oligosaccharide analysis have been developed to study milk. These methods allow for the rapid profiling of oligosaccharide mixtures with quantitation. With these tools, the role of oligosaccharide in milk is being understood. They further point to how oligosaccharide analysis can be performed, which until now has been very difficult and have lagged significantly those of other biopolymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Renee Ruhaak
- Department of Chemistry, University of California Davis, CA, USA
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Davies LRL, Pearce OMT, Tessier MB, Assar S, Smutova V, Pajunen M, Sumida M, Sato C, Kitajima K, Finne J, Gagneux P, Pshezhetsky A, Woods R, Varki A. Metabolism of vertebrate amino sugars with N-glycolyl groups: resistance of α2-8-linked N-glycolylneuraminic acid to enzymatic cleavage. J Biol Chem 2012; 287:28917-31. [PMID: 22692207 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m112.365056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The sialic acid (Sia) N-acetylneuraminic acid (Neu5Ac) and its hydroxylated derivative N-glycolylneuraminic acid (Neu5Gc) differ by one oxygen atom. CMP-Neu5Gc is synthesized from CMP-Neu5Ac, with Neu5Gc representing a highly variable fraction of total Sias in various tissues and among different species. The exception may be the brain, where Neu5Ac is abundant and Neu5Gc is reported to be rare. Here, we confirm this unusual pattern and its evolutionary conservation in additional samples from various species, concluding that brain Neu5Gc expression has been maintained at extremely low levels over hundreds of millions of years of vertebrate evolution. Most explanations for this pattern do not require maintaining neural Neu5Gc at such low levels. We hypothesized that resistance of α2-8-linked Neu5Gc to vertebrate sialidases is the detrimental effect requiring the relative absence of Neu5Gc from brain. This linkage is prominent in polysialic acid (polySia), a molecule with critical roles in vertebrate neural development. We show that Neu5Gc is incorporated into neural polySia and does not cause in vitro toxicity. Synthetic polymers of Neu5Ac and Neu5Gc showed that mammalian and bacterial sialidases are much less able to hydrolyze α2-8-linked Neu5Gc at the nonreducing terminus. Notably, this difference was not seen with acid-catalyzed hydrolysis of polySias. Molecular dynamics modeling indicates that differences in the three-dimensional conformation of terminal saccharides may partly explain reduced enzymatic activity. In keeping with this, polymers of N-propionylneuraminic acid are sensitive to sialidases. Resistance of Neu5Gc-containing polySia to sialidases provides a potential explanation for the rarity of Neu5Gc in the vertebrate brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leela R L Davies
- Department of Medicine, Glycobiology Research and Training Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093-0687, USA
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Senda A, Kobayashi R, Fukuda K, Saito T, Hood WR, Kunz TH, Oftedal OT, Urashima T. Chemical characterization of milk oligosaccharides of the island flying fox (Pteropus hypomelanus) (Chiroptera: Pteropodidae). Anim Sci J 2011; 82:782-6. [PMID: 22111635 DOI: 10.1111/j.1740-0929.2011.00906.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Although a considerable amount of information has accumulated about oligosaccharides in the milk and colostrum of representatives of various mammalian orders, nothing is so far known concerning these sugars in the milk of any bat species (order Chiroptera). In this study, we determined that the following oligosaccharides occur in milk of the island flying fox, Pteropus hypomelanus (Chiroptera: Pteropidae): Gal(α1-3)Gal(β1-4)Glc (isoglobotriose), Gal(β1-4)GlcNAc(β1-3)Gal(β1-4)Glc (lacto-N-neotetraose), Gal(β1-4)GlcNAc(β1-3)[Gal(β1-4)GlcNAc(β1-6)]Gal(β1-4)Glc (lacto-N-neohexaose) and Neu5Gc(α2-3)Gal(β1-4)Glc (3'-NGc-SL). However, lactose was found to be the dominant saccharide in this milk, as in most eutherian mammals. The biologic importance of oligosaccharides in Chiropteran milks warrants further study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akitsugu Senda
- Graduate School of Food Hygiene, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Obihiro, Hokkaido, Japan
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Freeze HH, Sharma V. Metabolic manipulation of glycosylation disorders in humans and animal models. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2010; 21:655-62. [PMID: 20363348 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2010.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2009] [Revised: 03/24/2010] [Accepted: 03/26/2010] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
In the last decade, over 40 inherited human glycosylation disorders were identified. Most patients have hypomorphic, rather than null alleles. The phenotypic spectrum is broad and most of the disorders affect embryonic and early post-natal development; a few appear in adult life. Some deficiencies can be treated with simple dietary sugar (monosaccharide) supplements. Here we focus on four glycosylation disorders that have been treated with supplements in patients or in model systems, primarily the mouse. Surprisingly, small differences in the amount of exogenous sugar have a major impact on the diseases in specific cells or organs while others are unaffected. The underlying mechanisms are mostly unknown, but changes in the contributions of the de novo, salvage and dietary pathways may contribute to the beneficial outcome. Clearly, the metabolic chart is not flat; all arrows are not equally robust at all points of time and space. This metabolic perspective may help explain some of these observations and guide the development of other vertebrate models of glycosylation disorders that can respond to dietary manipulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hudson H Freeze
- Sanford-Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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