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Du L, Zhang Q, Li Y, Li T, Deng Q, Jia Y, Lei K, Kan D, Xie F, Huang S. Research progress on the role of PTEN deletion or mutation in the immune microenvironment of glioblastoma. Front Oncol 2024; 14:1409519. [PMID: 39206155 PMCID: PMC11349564 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2024.1409519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2024] [Accepted: 07/29/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in immunotherapy represent a breakthrough in solid tumor treatment but the existing data indicate that immunotherapy is not effective in improving the survival time of patients with glioblastoma. The tumor microenvironment (TME) exerts a series of inhibitory effects on immune effector cells, which limits the clinical application of immunotherapy. Growing evidence shows that phosphate and tension homology deleted on chromosome ten (PTEN) plays an essential role in TME immunosuppression of glioblastoma. Emerging evidence also indicates that targeting PTEN can improve the anti-tumor immunity in TME and enhance the immunotherapy effect, highlighting the potential of PTEN as a promising therapeutic target. This review summarizes the function and specific upstream and downstream targets of PTEN-associated immune cells in glioblastoma TME, providing potential drug targets and therapeutic options for glioblastoma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leiya Du
- Department of Oncology, The Second People’s Hospital of Yibin, Yibin, Sichuan, China
| | - Qian Zhang
- Department of Oncology, The Second People’s Hospital of Yibin, Yibin, Sichuan, China
| | - Yi Li
- Department of Oncology, The Second People’s Hospital of Yibin, Yibin, Sichuan, China
| | - Ting Li
- Department of Oncology, The Second People’s Hospital of Yibin, Yibin, Sichuan, China
| | - Qingshan Deng
- Department of Neurosurgery, The Second People’s Hospital of Yibin, Yibin, Sichuan, China
| | - Yuming Jia
- Department of Oncology, The Second People’s Hospital of Yibin, Yibin, Sichuan, China
| | - Kaijian Lei
- Department of Oncology, The Second People’s Hospital of Yibin, Yibin, Sichuan, China
| | - Daohong Kan
- Department of Burn and Plastic Surgery, The Second People’s Hospital of Yibin, Yibin, Sichuan, China
| | - Fang Xie
- Department of Oncology, The Second People’s Hospital of Yibin, Yibin, Sichuan, China
| | - Shenglan Huang
- Department of Oncology, The Second People’s Hospital of Yibin, Yibin, Sichuan, China
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2
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Li X, Yang P, Hou X, Ji S. Post-Translational Modification of PTEN Protein: Quantity and Activity. Oncol Rev 2024; 18:1430237. [PMID: 39144161 PMCID: PMC11321960 DOI: 10.3389/or.2024.1430237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/04/2024] [Indexed: 08/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Post-translational modifications play crucial roles in regulating protein functions and stabilities. PTEN is a critical tumor suppressor involved in regulating cellular proliferation, survival, and migration processes. However, dysregulation of PTEN is common in various human cancers. PTEN stability and activation/suppression have been extensively studied in the context of tumorigenesis through inhibition of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. PTEN undergoes various post-translational modifications, primarily including phosphorylation, acetylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation, neddylation, and oxidation, which finely tune its activity and stability. Generally, phosphorylation modulates PTEN activity through its lipid phosphatase function, leading to altered power of the signaling pathways. Acetylation influences PTEN protein stability and degradation rate. SUMOylation has been implicated in PTEN localization and interactions with other proteins, affecting its overall function. Neddylation, as a novel modification of PTEN, is a key regulatory mechanism in the loss of tumor suppressor function of PTEN. Although current therapeutic approaches focus primarily on inhibiting PI3 kinase, understanding the post-translational modifications of PTEN could help provide new therapeutic strategies that can restore PTEN's role in PIP3-dependent tumors. The present review summarizes the major recent developments in the regulation of PTEN protein level and activity. We expect that these insights will contribute to better understanding of this critical tumor suppressor and its potential implications for cancer therapy in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Li
- Department of Basic Medicine, Zhengzhou Shuqing Medical College, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Pu Yang
- Department of Basic Medicine, Zhengzhou Shuqing Medical College, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Xiaoli Hou
- Department of Basic Medicine, Zhengzhou Shuqing Medical College, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
| | - Shaoping Ji
- Department of Basic Medicine, Zhengzhou Shuqing Medical College, Zhengzhou, Henan, China
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Medical School, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan, China
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3
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Kumari S, Gupta R, Ambasta RK, Kumar P. Emerging trends in post-translational modification: Shedding light on Glioblastoma multiforme. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2023; 1878:188999. [PMID: 37858622 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2023.188999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 10/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/06/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023]
Abstract
Recent multi-omics studies, including proteomics, transcriptomics, genomics, and metabolomics have revealed the critical role of post-translational modifications (PTMs) in the progression and pathogenesis of Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM). Further, PTMs alter the oncogenic signaling events and offer a novel avenue in GBM therapeutics research through PTM enzymes as potential biomarkers for drug targeting. In addition, PTMs are critical regulators of chromatin architecture, gene expression, and tumor microenvironment (TME), that play a crucial function in tumorigenesis. Moreover, the implementation of artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms enhances GBM therapeutics research through the identification of novel PTM enzymes and residues. Herein, we briefly explain the mechanism of protein modifications in GBM etiology, and in altering the biologics of GBM cells through chromatin remodeling, modulation of the TME, and signaling pathways. In addition, we highlighted the importance of PTM enzymes as therapeutic biomarkers and the role of artificial intelligence and machine learning in protein PTM prediction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smita Kumari
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological, University, India
| | - Rohan Gupta
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological, University, India; School of Medicine, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, United States of America
| | - Rashmi K Ambasta
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological, University, India; Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, SRM University, Sonepat, Haryana, India.
| | - Pravir Kumar
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological, University, India.
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Cheng Y, Song S, Wei Y, Xu G, An Y, Ma J, Yang H, Qi Z, Xiao X, Bai J, Xu L, Hu Z, Sun T, Wang L, Lu J, Lin Q. Glioma Imaging by O-(2-18F-Fluoroethyl)-L-Tyrosine PET and Diffusion-Weighted MRI and Correlation With Molecular Phenotypes, Validated by PET/MR-Guided Biopsies. Front Oncol 2021; 11:743655. [PMID: 34912706 PMCID: PMC8666958 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.743655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 11/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Gliomas exhibit high intra-tumoral histological and molecular heterogeneity. Introducing stereotactic biopsy, we achieved a superior molecular analysis of glioma using O-(2-18F-fluoroethyl)-L-tyrosine (FET)-positron emission tomography (PET) and diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (DWI). Patients underwent simultaneous DWI and FET-PET scans. Correlations between biopsy-derived tumor tissue values, such as the tumor-to-background ratio (TBR) and apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC)/exponential ADC (eADC) and histopathological diagnoses and those between relevant genes and TBR and ADC values were determined. Tumor regions with human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) mutation had higher TBR and lower ADC values. Tumor protein P53 mutation correlated with lower TBR and higher ADC values. α-thalassemia/mental-retardation-syndrome-X-linked gene (ATRX) correlated with higher ADC values. 1p/19q codeletion and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations correlated with lower ADC values. Isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) mutations correlated with higher TBRmean values. No correlation existed between TBRmax/TBRmean/ADC/eADC values and phosphatase and tensin homolog mutations (PTEN) or O6-methylguanine-DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) promoter methylation. Furthermore, TBR/ADC combination had a higher diagnostic accuracy than each single imaging method for high-grade and IDH1-, hTERT-, and EGFR-mutated gliomas. This is the first study establishing the accurate diagnostic criteria for glioma based on FET-PET and DWI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Cheng
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Neurosurgery, China International Neuroscience Institute, Beijing, China.,Department of Neurosurgery, National Clinical Research Center for Geriatric Diseases, Beijing, China
| | - Shuangshuang Song
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Brain Informatics, Beijing, China.,Department of Nuclear Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Yukui Wei
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Neurosurgery, China International Neuroscience Institute, Beijing, China
| | - Geng Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Neurosurgery, China International Neuroscience Institute, Beijing, China
| | - Yang An
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Neurosurgery, China International Neuroscience Institute, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Ma
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Brain Informatics, Beijing, China
| | - Hongwei Yang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Brain Informatics, Beijing, China
| | - Zhigang Qi
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xinru Xiao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Neurosurgery, China International Neuroscience Institute, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Bai
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Neurosurgery, China International Neuroscience Institute, Beijing, China
| | - Lixin Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Neurosurgery, China International Neuroscience Institute, Beijing, China
| | - Zeliang Hu
- Department of Pathology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Tingting Sun
- Department of Medicine, Nanjing Geneseeq Technology Inc., Nanjing, China
| | - Leiming Wang
- Department of Pathology, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Lu
- Department of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Brain Informatics, Beijing, China
| | - Qingtang Lin
- Department of Neurosurgery, Xuanwu Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Department of Neurosurgery, China International Neuroscience Institute, Beijing, China
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5
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Patrizz A, Dono A, Zhu P, Tandon N, Ballester LY, Esquenazi Y. Tumor recurrence or treatment-related changes following chemoradiation in patients with glioblastoma: does pathology predict outcomes? J Neurooncol 2021; 152:163-172. [PMID: 33481149 DOI: 10.1007/s11060-020-03690-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Despite surgical resection and chemoradiation, all patients with GBM invariably recur. Radiological imaging is limited in differentiating tumor recurrence (TR) from treatment-related changes (TRC); therefore, re-resection is often needed. Few studies have assessed the relationship between re-resection histopathology and overall survival (OS). We performed a large retrospective study to analyze the clinical significance of histopathology following re-resection and its influence on genomic sequencing results. METHODS Clinical, radiographic, and histological information was compiled from 675 patients with GBM (2005-2017). 137-patients met the inclusion criteria. IDH1 p.R132H immunohistochemistry was performed in all patients. Next-generation sequencing interrogating 205 tumor-related genes was performed in 68-patients. Molecular alterations from initial and subsequent resections were compared in a subset of cases. RESULTS There were no differences in OS (17.3-months TRC vs. 21-months TR, p = 0.881) and survival from progression (9.0 vs. 11.7-months, p = 0.778) between patients with TR and TRC on re-resection. TR patients were more likely to receive salvage radiotherapy (26% vs. 0%) and tumor-treating fields (25% vs. 5%,) after the 2nd surgery than the TRC group (p = < 0.045). There was no correlation between mutations and TRC. IDH status was not predictive of TRC. Fifteen-patients had sequencing results from multiple surgeries without evident differences in genomic alterations. CONCLUSIONS Histopathologic findings following chemoradiation do not correlate with clinical outcomes. Such findings should be considered during patient management and clinical trial enrollment. Standardization of tissue sampling and interpretation following reoperation is urgently needed. Future work is required to understand the relationship between the mutation profile following TRC and outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Patrizz
- Vivian L. Smith Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School, 6400 Fannin Street, Suite # 2800, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Antonio Dono
- Vivian L. Smith Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School, 6400 Fannin Street, Suite # 2800, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Ping Zhu
- Vivian L. Smith Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School, 6400 Fannin Street, Suite # 2800, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.,Department of Epidemiology, Human Genetics, and Environmental Sciences, UTHealth School of Public Health, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Nitin Tandon
- Vivian L. Smith Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School, 6400 Fannin Street, Suite # 2800, Houston, TX, 77030, USA
| | - Leomar Y Ballester
- Vivian L. Smith Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School, 6400 Fannin Street, Suite # 2800, Houston, TX, 77030, USA. .,Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School, Houston, TX, USA. .,Memorial Hermann Hospital-TMC, Houston, TX, USA. .,Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine and Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston - McGovern Medical School, 6431 Fannin Street, MSB 2.136, Houston, TX, 77030, USA.
| | - Yoshua Esquenazi
- Vivian L. Smith Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, McGovern Medical School, 6400 Fannin Street, Suite # 2800, Houston, TX, 77030, USA. .,Center for Precision Health, McGovern Medical School, The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX, USA. .,Memorial Hermann Hospital-TMC, Houston, TX, USA.
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Sinha A, Saleh A, Endersby R, Yuan SH, Chokshi CR, Brown KR, Kuzio B, Kauppinen T, Singh SK, Baker SJ, McKinnon PJ, Katyal S. RAD51-Mediated DNA Homologous Recombination Is Independent of PTEN Mutational Status. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12113178. [PMID: 33138032 PMCID: PMC7693555 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12113178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary PTEN is an important tumor suppressor that is frequently mutated in malignancy. PTEN mutational loss has been associated with reduced RAD51 expression and homologous recombination deficiency (HRD), however; recent studies have failed to recapitulate these findings. Here, we show that RAD51 expression, foci formation and homologous recombination repair activity are unaltered in normal and tumorigenic PTEN-deficient cells and patient samples. Furthermore, we show that PTEN-deficient tumor cell lines do not synergize with the clinical PARP inhibitor olaparib, underscoring a need to discontinue its use in treating patients with PTEN-deficient tumors that do not otherwise exhibit HRD. Abstract PTEN mutation occurs in a variety of aggressive cancers and is associated with poor patient outcomes. Recent studies have linked mutational loss of PTEN to reduced RAD51 expression and function, a key factor involved in the homologous recombination (HR) pathway. However, these studies remain controversial, as they fail to establish a definitive causal link to RAD51 expression that is PTEN-dependent, while other studies have not been able to recapitulate the relationship between the PTEN expression and the RAD51/HR function. Resolution of this apparent conundrum is essential due to the clinically-significant implication that PTEN-deficient tumors may be sensitive to poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors (PARPi) commonly used in the clinical management of BRCA-mutated and other HR-deficient (HRD) tumors. Methods: Primary Pten-deficient (and corresponding wild-type) mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs) and astrocytes and PTEN-null human tumor cell lines and primary cells were assessed for RAD51 expression (via the Western blot analysis) and DNA damage repair analyses (via alkali comet and γH2AX foci assays). RAD51 foci analysis was used to measure HR-dependent DNA repair. Xrcc2-deficient MEFs served as an HR-deficient control, while the stable knockdown of RAD51 (shRAD51) served to control for the relative RAD51/HR-mediated repair and the phospho-53BP1 foci analysis served to confirm and measure non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) activity in PTEN-deficient and shRAD51-expressing (HRD) lines. Cell proliferation studies were used to measure any potential added sensitivity of PTEN-null cells to the clinically-relevant PARPi, olaparib. RAD51 levels and DNA damage response signaling were assessed in PTEN-mutant brain tumor initiating cells (BTICs) derived from primary and recurrent glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) patients, while expression of RAD51 and its paralogs were examined as a function of the PTEN status in the RNA expression datasets isolated from primary GBM tumor specimens and BTICs. Results: Pten knockout primary murine cells display unaltered RAD51 expression, endogenous and DNA strand break-induced RAD51 foci and robust DNA repair activity. Defective HR was only observed in the cells lacking Xrcc2. Likewise, human glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) cell lines with known PTEN deficiency (U87, PTEN-mutated; U251 and U373, PTEN-null) show apparent expression of RAD51 and display efficient DNA repair activity. Only GBM cells stably expressing shRNAs against RAD51 (shRAD51) display dysfunctional DNA repair activity and reduced proliferative capacity, which is exacerbated by PARPi treatment. Furthermore, GBM patient-derived BTICs displayed robust RAD51 expression and intact DNA damage response signaling in spite of PTEN-inactivating mutations. RNA expression analysis of primary GBM tissue specimens and BTICs demonstrate stable levels of RAD51 and its paralogs (RAD51B, RAD51C, RAD51D, XRCC2, XRCC3, and DMC1), regardless of the PTEN mutational status. Conclusions: Our findings demonstrate definitively that PTEN loss does not alter the RAD51 expression, its paralogs, or the HR activity. Furthermore, deficiency in PTEN alone is not sufficient to impart enhanced sensitivity to PARPi associated with HRD. This study is the first to unequivocally demonstrate that PTEN deficiency is not linked to the RAD51 expression or the HR activity amongst primary neural and non-neural Pten-null cells, PTEN-deficient tumor cell lines, and primary PTEN-mutant GBM patient-derived tissue specimens and BTICs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asha Sinha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T6, Canada; (A.S.); (A.S.); (S.H.Y.); (B.K.); (T.K.)
- Research Institute in Oncology and Hematology, CancerCare Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0V9, Canada
| | - Ali Saleh
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T6, Canada; (A.S.); (A.S.); (S.H.Y.); (B.K.); (T.K.)
- Research Institute in Oncology and Hematology, CancerCare Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0V9, Canada
| | - Raelene Endersby
- Telethon Kids Institute, Perth Children’s Hospital, 15 Hospital Avenue, Perth, WA 6009, Australia;
- Centre for Child Health Research, University of Western Australia, 15 Hospital Avenue, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Shek H. Yuan
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T6, Canada; (A.S.); (A.S.); (S.H.Y.); (B.K.); (T.K.)
- Research Institute in Oncology and Hematology, CancerCare Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0V9, Canada
| | - Chirayu R. Chokshi
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada; (C.R.C.); (S.K.S.)
| | - Kevin R. Brown
- Donnelly Centre, University of Toronto, 160 College St, Toronto, ON M5S 3E1, Canada;
| | - Bozena Kuzio
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T6, Canada; (A.S.); (A.S.); (S.H.Y.); (B.K.); (T.K.)
- Research Institute in Oncology and Hematology, CancerCare Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0V9, Canada
| | - Tiina Kauppinen
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T6, Canada; (A.S.); (A.S.); (S.H.Y.); (B.K.); (T.K.)
- Neuroscience Research Program, Kleysen Institute for Advanced Medicine, Health Sciences Centre, 710 William Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0Z3, Canada
| | - Sheila K. Singh
- Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada; (C.R.C.); (S.K.S.)
- Department of Surgery, Faculty of Health Sciences, McMaster University, 1200 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada
| | - Suzanne J. Baker
- Department of Developmental Neurobiology, St Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105-3678, USA;
| | - Peter J. McKinnon
- Department of Genetics, St Jude Children’s Research Hospital, Memphis, TN 38105-3678, USA;
| | - Sachin Katyal
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0T6, Canada; (A.S.); (A.S.); (S.H.Y.); (B.K.); (T.K.)
- Research Institute in Oncology and Hematology, CancerCare Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3E 0V9, Canada
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-204-787-2765; Fax: +1-204-787-2190
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Ali MY, Oliva CR, Noman ASM, Allen BG, Goswami PC, Zakharia Y, Monga V, Spitz DR, Buatti JM, Griguer CE. Radioresistance in Glioblastoma and the Development of Radiosensitizers. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:E2511. [PMID: 32899427 PMCID: PMC7564557 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12092511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 08/24/2020] [Accepted: 08/28/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Ionizing radiation is a common and effective therapeutic option for the treatment of glioblastoma (GBM). Unfortunately, some GBMs are relatively radioresistant and patients have worse outcomes after radiation treatment. The mechanisms underlying intrinsic radioresistance in GBM has been rigorously investigated over the past several years, but the complex interaction of the cellular molecules and signaling pathways involved in radioresistance remains incompletely defined. A clinically effective radiosensitizer that overcomes radioresistance has yet to be identified. In this review, we discuss the current status of radiation treatment in GBM, including advances in imaging techniques that have facilitated more accurate diagnosis, and the identified mechanisms of GBM radioresistance. In addition, we provide a summary of the candidate GBM radiosensitizers being investigated, including an update of subjects enrolled in clinical trials. Overall, this review highlights the importance of understanding the mechanisms of GBM radioresistance to facilitate the development of effective radiosensitizers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Yousuf Ali
- Interdisciplinary Graduate Program in Human Toxicology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA;
- Free Radical & Radiation Biology Program, Department of Radiation Oncology, Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA; (C.R.O.); (B.G.A.); (P.C.G.); (D.R.S.)
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA;
| | - Claudia R. Oliva
- Free Radical & Radiation Biology Program, Department of Radiation Oncology, Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA; (C.R.O.); (B.G.A.); (P.C.G.); (D.R.S.)
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA;
| | - Abu Shadat M. Noman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh;
- Department of Pathology, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 2B4, Canada
| | - Bryan G. Allen
- Free Radical & Radiation Biology Program, Department of Radiation Oncology, Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA; (C.R.O.); (B.G.A.); (P.C.G.); (D.R.S.)
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA;
| | - Prabhat C. Goswami
- Free Radical & Radiation Biology Program, Department of Radiation Oncology, Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA; (C.R.O.); (B.G.A.); (P.C.G.); (D.R.S.)
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA;
| | - Yousef Zakharia
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA; (Y.Z.); (V.M.)
| | - Varun Monga
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA; (Y.Z.); (V.M.)
| | - Douglas R. Spitz
- Free Radical & Radiation Biology Program, Department of Radiation Oncology, Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA; (C.R.O.); (B.G.A.); (P.C.G.); (D.R.S.)
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA;
| | - John M. Buatti
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA;
| | - Corinne E. Griguer
- Free Radical & Radiation Biology Program, Department of Radiation Oncology, Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA; (C.R.O.); (B.G.A.); (P.C.G.); (D.R.S.)
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA;
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8
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Fusco N, Sajjadi E, Venetis K, Gaudioso G, Lopez G, Corti C, Rocco EG, Criscitiello C, Malapelle U, Invernizzi M. PTEN Alterations and Their Role in Cancer Management: Are We Making Headway on Precision Medicine? Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:E719. [PMID: 32605290 PMCID: PMC7397204 DOI: 10.3390/genes11070719] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2020] [Revised: 06/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Alterations in the tumor suppressor phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) occur in a substantial proportion of solid tumors. These events drive tumorigenesis and tumor progression. Given its central role as a downregulator of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, PTEN is deeply involved in cell growth, proliferation, and survival. This gene is also implicated in the modulation of the DNA damage response and in tumor immune microenvironment modeling. Despite the actionability of PTEN alterations, their role as biomarkers remains controversial in clinical practice. To date, there is still a substantial lack of validated guidelines and/or recommendations for PTEN testing. Here, we provide an update on the current state of knowledge on biologic and genetic alterations of PTEN across the most frequent solid tumors, as well as on their actual and/or possible clinical applications. We focus on possible tailored schemes for cancer patients' clinical management, including risk assessment, diagnosis, prognostication, and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Fusco
- Department of Oncology and Hemato-Oncology, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy; (K.V.); (E.G.R.)
- Division of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, IEO, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, 20141 Milan, Italy;
| | - Elham Sajjadi
- Division of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, IEO, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, 20141 Milan, Italy;
| | - Konstantinos Venetis
- Department of Oncology and Hemato-Oncology, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy; (K.V.); (E.G.R.)
- Division of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, IEO, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, 20141 Milan, Italy;
- Doctoral Program in Translational Medicine, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy
| | - Gabriella Gaudioso
- Division of Pathology, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, 20131 Milan, Italy; (G.G.); (G.L.); (C.C.)
| | - Gianluca Lopez
- Division of Pathology, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, 20131 Milan, Italy; (G.G.); (G.L.); (C.C.)
| | - Chiara Corti
- Division of Pathology, Fondazione IRCCS Ca’ Granda Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, 20131 Milan, Italy; (G.G.); (G.L.); (C.C.)
| | - Elena Guerini Rocco
- Department of Oncology and Hemato-Oncology, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy; (K.V.); (E.G.R.)
- Division of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, IEO, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, 20141 Milan, Italy;
| | - Carmen Criscitiello
- New Drugs and Early Drug Development for Innovative Therapies Division, IEO, European Institute of Oncology IRCCS, 20141 Milan, Italy;
| | - Umberto Malapelle
- Department of Public Health, University Federico II, 80138 Naples, Italy;
| | - Marco Invernizzi
- Department of Health Sciences, University of Eastern Piedmont, 28100 Novara, Italy;
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9
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Abstract
Germline pathogenic phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) mutations cause PTEN hamartoma tumor syndrome (PHTS), characterized by various benign and malignant tumors of the thyroid, breast, endometrium, and other organs. Patients with PHTS may present with other clinical features such as macrocephaly, intestinal polyposis, cognitive changes, and pathognomonic skin changes. Clinically, deregulation of PTEN function is implicated in other human diseases in addition to many types of human cancer. PTEN is an important phosphatase that counteracts one of the most critical cancer pathways: the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT signaling pathways. Although PTEN can dephosphorylate lipids and proteins, it also has functions independent of phosphatase activity in normal and pathological states. It is positively and negatively regulated at the transcriptional level as well as posttranslationally by phosphorylation, ubiquitylation, oxidation, and acetylation. Although most of its tumor-suppressor activity is likely to be caused by lipid dephosphorylation at the plasma membrane, PTEN also resides in the cytoplasm and nucleus, and its subcellular distribution is under strict control. In this review, we highlight our current knowledge of PTEN function and recent discoveries in understanding PTEN function regulation and how this can be exploited therapeutically for cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Ngeow
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798.,Cancer Genetics Service, Division of Medical Oncology, National Cancer Centre, Singapore 169610.,Genomic Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio 44195, USA
| | - Charis Eng
- Genomic Medicine Institute, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio 44195, USA.,Taussig Cancer Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio 44195, USA.,Department of Genetics and Genome Sciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA.,Germline High Risk Cancer Focus Group, CASE Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio 44106, USA
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10
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Sun SL, Shu YG, Tao MY. LncRNA CCAT2 promotes angiogenesis in glioma through activation of VEGFA signalling by sponging miR-424. Mol Cell Biochem 2020; 468:69-82. [PMID: 32236863 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-020-03712-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Glioma is characterized by high morbidity, high mortality and poor prognosis. Recent studies exhibited that lncRNA CCAT2 is overexpressed in glioma and promotes glioma progression, but the specific molecular biological mechanism remains to be determined. We performed qRT-PCR to evaluate the expression of related genes, Western blotting analysis to measure protein levels, colony formation assay to detect the proliferative ability of glioma cells, flow cytometry to measure cell apoptosis, bioinformatics analysis and dual luciferase assay to verify the binding sites and the targeted regulatory relationship in A172 and U251 cell lines and tube formation assay to determine endothelial angiogenesis. LncRNA CCAT2 and VEGFA were highly expressed, while miR-424 was expressed at low levels in NHA cells. Furthermore, knockdown of lncRNA CCAT2 decreased cell proliferation, increased cell apoptosis and inhibited endothelial angiogenesis in glioma. Moreover, lncRNA CCAT2 shared a complementary sequence with miR-424 which in turn directly bound to the 3'-UTR of VEGFA. Further investigation indicated that lncRNA CCAT2 promoted cell proliferation and endothelial angiogenesis by inducing the PI3K/AKT signalling pathway in glioma. The oncogenic lncRNA CCAT2 is highly associated with the development of glioma and exerts its function by upregulating VEGFA via miR-424.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheng-Li Sun
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hunan Provincial People's Hospital, No.61, Jiefang West Road, Changsha, 410005, Hunan, People's Republic of China
| | - Yu-Gao Shu
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hunan Provincial People's Hospital, No.61, Jiefang West Road, Changsha, 410005, Hunan, People's Republic of China
| | - Mei-Yi Tao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hunan Provincial People's Hospital, No.61, Jiefang West Road, Changsha, 410005, Hunan, People's Republic of China.
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11
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PTEN Expression as a Complementary Biomarker for Mismatch Repair Testing in Breast Cancer. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21041461. [PMID: 32098071 PMCID: PMC7073136 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21041461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Mismatch repair (MMR) analysis in breast cancer may help to inform immunotherapy decisions but it lacks breast-specific guidelines. Unlike in other neoplasms, MMR protein loss shows intra-tumor heterogeneity and it is not mirrored by microsatellite instability in the breast. Additional biomarkers can improve MMR clinical testing. Phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) inactivation is an early oncogenic event that is associated with MMR deficiency (dMMR) in several tumors. Here, we sought to characterize the diagnostic utility of PTEN expression analysis for MMR status assessment in breast cancer. A total of 608 breast cancers were profiled for their MMR and PTEN status. Proteins expression and distribution were analyzed by immunohistochemistry (IHC) on tissue microarrays and confirmed on full sections; PTEN copy number alterations were detected using a real-time PCR assay. Overall, 78 (12.8%) cases were MMR-heterogeneous (hMMR), while all patterns of PTEN expression showed no intra-tumor heterogeneity. Wild-type PTEN expression was observed in 15 (18.5%) dMMR tumors (p < 0.0001). Survival analyses revealed significant correlations between MMR-proficient (pMMR), PTEN expression, and a better outcome. The positive predictive value of PTEN-retained status for pMMR ranged from 94.6% in estrogen receptor (ER)+/HER2- tumors to 100% in HER2-amplified and ER-/HER2- cases. We propose a novel diagnostic algorithm where PTEN expression analysis can be employed to identify pMMR breast cancers.
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12
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Orellana L. Large-Scale Conformational Changes and Protein Function: Breaking the in silico Barrier. Front Mol Biosci 2019; 6:117. [PMID: 31750315 PMCID: PMC6848229 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2019.00117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Large-scale conformational changes are essential to link protein structures with their function at the cell and organism scale, but have been elusive both experimentally and computationally. Over the past few years developments in cryo-electron microscopy and crystallography techniques have started to reveal multiple snapshots of increasingly large and flexible systems, deemed impossible only short time ago. As structural information accumulates, theoretical methods become central to understand how different conformers interconvert to mediate biological function. Here we briefly survey current in silico methods to tackle large conformational changes, reviewing recent examples of cross-validation of experiments and computational predictions, which show how the integration of different scale simulations with biological information is already starting to break the barriers between the in silico, in vitro, and in vivo worlds, shedding new light onto complex biological problems inaccessible so far.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Orellana
- Institutionen för Biokemi och Biofysik, Stockholms Universitet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Science for Life Laboratory, Solna, Sweden
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13
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Carbognin L, Miglietta F, Paris I, Dieci MV. Prognostic and Predictive Implications of PTEN in Breast Cancer: Unfulfilled Promises but Intriguing Perspectives. Cancers (Basel) 2019; 11:E1401. [PMID: 31546901 PMCID: PMC6769721 DOI: 10.3390/cancers11091401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2019] [Revised: 09/12/2019] [Accepted: 09/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The characterization of tumor biology and consequently the identification of prognostic and predictive biomarkers represent key issues for the translational research in breast cancer (BC). Phosphatase and tensin homolog deleted on chromosome ten (PTEN), the negative regulator of the proto-oncogenic phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) pathway, constitutes one of the most intriguing tumor suppressor genes involved in a series of biological processes, such as cell growth and survival, cellular migration and genomic stability. Loss of PTEN activity, due to protein, genetic or epigenetic alterations, was reported in up to almost half of BC cases. Recently, besides the role of PTEN in the pathogenesis of BC, investigated for over 20 years after the PTEN discovery, several retrospective and prospective translational studies, in the early and advanced setting, reported controversial results regarding the association between PTEN functional status and both clinical outcome and response to various BC treatments. This review explores the pre-clinical and clinical role of PTEN in BC with regard to the potential association of PTEN with prognosis and treatment response or resistance, underlying the complexity of the interpretation of available results and suggesting potential future perspectives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Carbognin
- Department of Medicine, University of Verona, 37126 Verona, Italy.
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Woman and Child Health and Public Health, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Roma, Italy.
| | - Federica Miglietta
- Department of Surgery, Oncology and Gastroenterology, University of Padova, 35128 Padova, Italy.
- Division of Medical Oncology 2, Istituto Oncologico Veneto IRCCS, 35128 Padova, Italy.
| | - Ida Paris
- Division of Gynecologic Oncology, Department of Woman and Child Health and Public Health, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Roma, Italy.
| | - Maria Vittoria Dieci
- Department of Surgery, Oncology and Gastroenterology, University of Padova, 35128 Padova, Italy.
- Division of Medical Oncology 2, Istituto Oncologico Veneto IRCCS, 35128 Padova, Italy.
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14
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Jimenez-Pascual A, Hale JS, Kordowski A, Pugh J, Silver DJ, Bayik D, Roversi G, Alban TJ, Rao S, Chen R, McIntyre TM, Colombo G, Taraboletti G, Holmberg KO, Forsberg-Nilsson K, Lathia JD, Siebzehnrubl FA. ADAMDEC1 Maintains a Growth Factor Signaling Loop in Cancer Stem Cells. Cancer Discov 2019; 9:1574-1589. [PMID: 31434712 DOI: 10.1158/2159-8290.cd-18-1308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Revised: 07/02/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Glioblastomas (GBM) are lethal brain tumors where poor outcome is attributed to cellular heterogeneity, therapeutic resistance, and a highly infiltrative nature. These characteristics are preferentially linked to GBM cancer stem cells (GSC), but how GSCs maintain their stemness is incompletely understood and the subject of intense investigation. Here, we identify a novel signaling loop that induces and maintains GSCs consisting of an atypical metalloproteinase, ADAMDEC1, secreted by GSCs. ADAMDEC1 rapidly solubilizes FGF2 to stimulate FGFR1 expressed on GSCs. FGFR1 signaling induces upregulation of ZEB1 via ERK1/2 that regulates ADAMDEC1 expression through miR-203, creating a positive feedback loop. Genetic or pharmacologic targeting of components of this axis attenuates self-renewal and tumor growth. These findings reveal a new signaling axis for GSC maintenance and highlight ADAMDEC1 and FGFR1 as potential therapeutic targets in GBM. SIGNIFICANCE: Cancer stem cells (CSC) drive tumor growth in many cancers including GBM. We identified a novel sheddase, ADAMDEC1, which initiates an FGF autocrine loop to promote stemness in CSCs. This loop can be targeted to reduce GBM growth.This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 1469.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Jimenez-Pascual
- Cardiff University School of Biosciences, European Cancer Stem Cell Research Institute, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - James S Hale
- Department of Cardiovascular & Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio. .,Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Anja Kordowski
- Cardiff University School of Biosciences, European Cancer Stem Cell Research Institute, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Jamie Pugh
- Cardiff University School of Biosciences, European Cancer Stem Cell Research Institute, Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel J Silver
- Department of Cardiovascular & Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Defne Bayik
- Department of Cardiovascular & Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Gustavo Roversi
- Department of Cardiovascular & Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Tyler J Alban
- Department of Cardiovascular & Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, Ohio.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic, Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Shilpa Rao
- Department of Cardiovascular & Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Rui Chen
- Department of Cardiovascular & Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Thomas M McIntyre
- Department of Cardiovascular & Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio.,Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, Ohio.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic, Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Giorgio Colombo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Pavia and Institute of Molecular Recognition Chemistry (ICRM-CNR), Milano, Italy
| | | | - Karl O Holmberg
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Karin Forsberg-Nilsson
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology, Science for Life Laboratory, Rudbeck Laboratory, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Justin D Lathia
- Department of Cardiovascular & Metabolic Sciences, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland, Ohio. .,Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Cleveland, Ohio.,Department of Molecular Medicine, Cleveland Clinic, Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio
| | - Florian A Siebzehnrubl
- Cardiff University School of Biosciences, European Cancer Stem Cell Research Institute, Cardiff, United Kingdom.
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