The relationship between math anxiety and math achievement in young children is mediated through working memory, not by number sense, and it is not direct

Role of executive functions in the relations of state- and trait-math anxiety with math performance

The detrimental effect of math anxiety on math performance is thought to be mediated by executive functions. Previous studies have primarily focused on trait-math anxiety rather than state-math anxiety and have typically examined a single executive function rather than comprehensively evaluating all of them. Here, we used a structural equation modeling approach to concurrently determine the potential mediating roles of different executive functions (i.e., inhibition, switching, and updating) in the relationships between both state- and trait-math anxiety and math performance. A battery of computer-based tasks and questionnaires were administered to 205 university students. Two relevant results emerged. First, confirmatory factor analysis suggests that math anxiety encompassed both trait and state dimensions and, although they share substantial variance, trait-math anxiety predicted math performance over and above state-math anxiety. Second, working memory updating was the only executive function that mediated the relationship between math anxiety and math performance; neither inhibition nor switching played mediating roles. This calls into question whether some general proposals about the relationship between anxiety and executive functions can be extended specifically to math anxiety. We also raise the possibility that working memory updating or general cognitive difficulties might precede individual differences in math anxiety.

The relationship between numerical magnitude processing and math anxiety, and their joint effect on adult math performance, varied by indicators of numerical tasks

According to the hypothesis of Maloney et al. (Cognition 114(2):293-297, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2009.09.013), math anxiety is related to deficits in numerical magnitude processing, which in turn compromises the development of advanced math skills. Because previous studies on this topic are contradictory, which may be due to methodological differences in the measurement of numerical magnitude processing, we tested Maloney et al.'s hypothesis using different tasks and their indicators: numerical magnitude processing (symbolic and non-symbolic comparison tasks: accuracy, reaction time, numerical ratio, distance and size effects, and Weber fraction; number line estimation task: estimation error), math anxiety (combined scores of learning, testing, math problem solving, and general math anxiety), and math performance. The results of our study conducted on 119 young adults mostly support the hypothesis proposed by Maloney et al. that deficiency in symbolic magnitude processing is related to math anxiety, but the relationship between non-symbolic processes and math anxiety was opposite to the assumptions. Moreover, the results indicate that estimation processes (but not comparison processes) and math anxiety are related to math performance in adults. Finally, high math anxiety moderated the relationship between reaction time in the symbolic comparison task, reaction time in the non-symbolic comparison task, numerical ratio effect in the symbolic comparison task, and math performance. Because the results of the joint effect of numerical magnitude processing and math anxiety on math performance were inconsistent, this part of the hypothesis is called into question.

Understanding the social-emotional components of our "number sense": insights from a novel non-symbolic numerical comparison task

Introduction

A large body of work has identified a core sense of number supported by the Approximate Number System (ANS) that is present in infancy and across species. Although it is commonly assumed that the ANS directly processes perceptual input and is relatively independent from affective factors, some evidence points at a correlation between ANS performance and math anxiety. However, the evidence is mixed. We tested whether giving participants active control in completing a numerical task would change the relationship between math anxiety on performance.

Methods

Adult participants (N = 103) completed a novel four-alternative-forced-choice non-symbolic numerical comparison task. In a repeated-measures design, participants either passively viewed different dot arrays or actively chose to view each array (i.e., active information-seeking) before deciding on the largest quantity. Participants also provided confidence judgments during the passive version of the task.

Results

We replicated the ratio-dependent signature in participants' accuracy in both the passive and active versions of the task using this novel paradigm, as well as in trial-level confidence judgments and information-seeking behavior. Participants' self-reported math anxiety significantly correlated with their accuracy on the passive version of the task. Critically, the correlation disappeared in the active version of the task. Gender also emerged as a predictor of confidence judgments and a moderator of the effect of task on overall accuracy and the effect of active information seeking on accuracy in the active version of the task. Exploratory analysis of estimated Weber Fraction suggests that these results may be driven by auxiliary factors instead of changes in ANS acuity.

Conclusion

These findings have implications for understanding the relationship between math anxiety and performance on numerical tasks.

Does anxiety explain why math-anxious people underperform in math?

Math-anxious people consistently underperform in math. The most widely accepted explanation for why this underperformance occurs is that math-anxious people experience heightened anxiety when faced with math, and this in-the-moment anxiety interferes with performance. Surprisingly, this explanation has not been tested directly. Here, using both self-report and physiological indices of anxiety, we directly test how much in-the-moment anxiety explains math-anxious underperformance. Results indicate that in-the-moment anxiety indeed explains why math-anxious people underperform-but only partially, suggesting a need to seriously consider alternative mechanisms. Results also showed that while some highly math-anxious individuals-those with high levels of heart rate variability-experienced less in-the-moment anxiety, they nevertheless performed no better at math. For these individuals, math-anxious underperformance must occur for reasons unrelated to in-the-moment anxiety. More broadly, our findings point to substantial individual heterogeneity in the mechanisms underlying math-anxious underperformance. Accounting for this mechanistic heterogeneity may prove vital for optimally boosting math performance in math-anxious individuals.

Educational achievement and bullying: The mediating role of psychological difficulties

BACKGROUND

Bullying has a profound and enduring impact on academic achievement. However, there is a lack of clarity surrounding the specific mechanisms of this relationship.

AIMS

This study examined the link between bullying at age 9 and Numeracy/Literacy achievement at age 15 to determine if this relationship is partially or fully explained by psychological difficulties at age 13.

SAMPLE

Secondary data analysis was completed on waves 1, 2 and 3 of child cohort (Cohort'98) of the Growing Up in Ireland (GUI) study, respectively, at 9 years (N = 8568), 13 years (N = 7527) and 15 years of age (N = 6216).

RESULTS

Longitudinal path mediation model was conducted with bullying at age 9 as the predictor, total (emotional and behavioural) difficulties at age 13 as the mediator and Numeracy/Literacy scores at age 15 as outcomes revealing significant indirect effects of bullying on achievement, via psychological difficulties.

CONCLUSIONS

We discuss the impact of bullying on the student's psychological well-being, the relationship between bullying and academic attainment and how this may be tackled to avoid consequences throughout education and later in life.

EDUCATIONAL IMPACT AND IMPLICATIONS

This study emphasizes the need for schools to address the emotional and behavioural difficulties occurring as a result of bullying in order to improve the overall educational experience of a child. Existing interventions can be built upon by focusing on the continuous remediation of such psychological difficulties.

Mathematics anxiety in deaf, hard of hearing, and hearing college students

While mathematics anxiety (MA) has been widely researched in recent decades, this study addresses significant gaps: namely, research that explores the relationship between MA and self‐reported mathematics experiences; samples adults with a range of MA levels; and controls for general anxiety. Additionally, the study sampled deaf and hard of hearing (DHH) students, whose diverse life and educational experiences often differ from hearing students’. We investigated whether DHH students’ experiences with mathematics (i.e., parental behaviors, school environment, and mathematics feelings) and demographic variables (i.e., hearing status, age, and gender) predict their MA, and whether these relationships differ from those in hearing students. Self‐report questionnaires were completed by 296 DHH and hearing college students. Linear regression analyses controlling for general anxiety led to the following inference: DHH students who reported more positive attitudes toward mathematics and school environments demonstrated higher MA. Also, the relationships between mathematics feelings, parental behaviors, and MA differed between DHH and hearing students. Logistic regression analyses showed no contribution of MA to students’ likelihood of pursuing STEM degrees in either DHH or between DHH and hearing groups. Overall, this work breaks new ground in the study of MA in DHH students and challenges standard views of the relationships between MA and individual experiences.

Mathematics and Numerosity but Not Visuo-Spatial Working Memory Correlate with Mathematical Anxiety in Adults

Many individuals, when faced with mathematical tasks or situations requiring arithmetic skills, experience exaggerated levels of anxiety. Mathematical anxiety (MA), in addition to causing discomfort, can lead to avoidance behaviors and then to underachievement. However, the factors inducing MA and how MA deploys its detrimental effects are still largely debated. There is evidence suggesting that MA affects working memory capacity by further diminishing its limited processing resources. An alternative account postulates that MA originates from a coarse early numerical cognition capacity, the perception of numerosity. In the current study, we measured MA, math abilities, numerosity perception and visuo-spatial working memory (VSWM) in a sample of neurotypical adults. Correlational analyses confirmed previous studies showing that high MA was associated with lower math scores and worse numerosity estimation precision. Conversely, MA turned out to be unrelated to VSWM capacities. Finally, partial correlations revealed that MA fully accounted for the relationship between numerosity estimation precision and math abilities, suggesting a key role for MA as a mediating factor between these two domains.

The Role of Opportunity to Learn on Student Mathematics Anxiety, Problem-Solving Performance, and Mathematics Performance

This study examined the effects of opportunity to learn (OTL) or the content coverage in mathematics on student mathematics anxiety, problem-solving performance, and mathematics performance. The pathways examining the influences of OTL on student problem-solving performance and mathematics performance via mathematics anxiety were also tested. A sample of 1,676 students from Shanghai-China, and a sample of 1,511 students from the United States who participated in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2012 were used for the analyses. The results from multilevel models and path models supported our hypotheses that OTL not only showed significant direct effects on student mathematics anxiety, problem-solving performance, and mathematics performance, but also presented indirect effects on student problem-solving performance and mathematics performance via mathematics anxiety in both Shanghai-China and United States, controlling for student gender, grade, and socioeconomic status. The practical implications of the current results were also discussed.

Teasing apart the unique contributions of cognitive and affective predictors of math performance

Math permeates everyday life, and math skills are linked to general educational attainment, income, career choice, likelihood of full-time employment, and health and financial decision making. Thus, researchers have attempted to understand factors predicting math performance in order to identify ways of supporting math development. Work examining individual differences in math performance typically focuses on either cognitive predictors, including inhibitory control and the approximate number system (ANS; a nonsymbolic numerical comparison system), or affective predictors, like math anxiety. Studies with children suggest that these factors are interrelated, warranting examination of whether and how each uniquely and independently contributes to math performance in adulthood. Here, we examined how inhibitory control, the ANS, and math anxiety predicted college students' math performance (n = 122, mean age = 19.70 years). Using structural equation modeling, we find that although inhibitory control and the ANS were closely related to each other, they did not predict math performance above and beyond the effects of the other while also controlling for math anxiety. Instead, math anxiety was the only unique predictor of math performance. These findings contradict previous results in children and reinforce the need to consider affective factors in our discussions and interventions for supporting math performance in college students.