An Engineered Virus Library as a Resource for the Spectrum-wide Exploration of Virus and Vector Diversity

Identification of novel T-cell epitopes on viral protein VP4 of Infectious Bursal Disease Virus (IBDV) that play critical roles in eliciting cellular immune response

Infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) is a highly infectious RNA virus that causes severe damage to the bursa of Fabricius (BF), resulting in immunosuppression. Currently, IBDV vaccines mainly rely on the induction of neutralizing antibodies against VP2 for protection, and the role of cellular immunity against IBDV infection is unclear. Here, we show that IBDV VP4, a serine protease of the virion, is responsible for inducing specific T cell immunity against IBDV infection. Furthermore, we identified three specific T cell epitope peptides on VP4, among which, two epitopes (4/10 and 4/12) could be recognized by CD8+T cells, and the other one (4/27) by both CD4+T cells and CD8+T cells. Importantly, infection of SPF chickens with rFAdV-4-ON1-VP4, which is generated with the backbone of an avirulent fowl adenovirus strain (FAdV-4-ON1) without causing any clinical symptoms in chickens, induced IBDV-specific cellular immunity, providing effective protection for chickens against IBDV infection. This study demonstrates for the first time that the specific cellular immunity induced by IBDV VP4 specific-T cell epitopes plays a protective role in host response against IBDV infection, providing a new insight into the development of novel vaccines for the control of viral diseases.

ADEVO: Proof-of-concept of adenovirus-directed EVOlution by random peptide display on the fiber knob

Directed evolution of viral vectors involves the generation of randomized libraries followed by artificial selection of improved variants. Directed evolution only yielded limited results in adenovirus (AdV) engineering until now, mainly due to insufficient complexities of randomized libraries. Meanwhile, clinical applications of AdVs as gene therapy or oncolytic vectors are still hampered by the predetermined tropism of natural types. To overcome this challenge, we hypothesized that randomized peptide insertions on the capsid surface can be incorporated into the AdV bioengineering toolbox for retargeting. Here we developed AdV-directed EVOlution protocols based on fiber knob peptide display. Human AdV-C5-derived libraries were constructed following three distinct protocols and selected on a panel of cancer cell lines, with the goal of identifying variants able to infect and lyse these tumor cells more efficiently. All protocols enabled the construction of high complexity libraries with up to 9.6 × 105 unique variants, an approximate 100-fold improvement compared with previously published AdV libraries. After selection, the most enriched variants, which were robustly selected in various cancer cell lines, did not display enhanced infectivity but rather more efficient replication and cell lysis. Selected inserts also conferred enhanced lysis ability to oncolytic AdVs restricted to telomerase-expressing cell lines.

Seamless site-directed mutagenesis in complex cloned DNA sequences using the RedEx method

Seamless site-directed mutagenesis is an important technique for studying protein functions, tuning enzyme catalytic activities and modifying genetic elements in multiple rounds because it can insert, delete or substitute nucleotides, DNA segments or even entire genes at the target site without introducing any unwanted change. To facilitate seamless site-directed mutagenesis in large plasmids and bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) with repetitive sequences, we recently developed the RedEx strategy. Compared with previous methods, our approach achieves the recovery of correct recombinants with high accuracy by circumventing unwanted recombination between repetitive sequences. RedEx readily yields more than 80% accuracy in seamless DNA insertion and deletion in large multimodular polyketide synthase gene clusters, which are among the most difficult targets due to the large number of repetitive DNA sequences in modules encoding almost identical enzymes. Here we present the RedEx method by describing in detail the seamless site-directed mutagenesis in a BAC vector. Overall, the process includes three parts: (1) insertion of the RedEx cassette containing the desired mutation together with selection-counterselection markers flanked by unique restriction sites and 20-bp overlapping sequences into the target site by recombineering, (2) removal of the selection-counterselection markers in the BAC by restriction digestion and (3) circularization of the linear BAC by exonuclease-mediated in vitro DNA annealing. This protocol can be performed within 3 weeks and will enable researchers with DNA cloning experience to master seamless site-directed mutagenesis to accelerate their research.

Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 8 Represents a Positive Regulator of Cytomegalovirus Replication and a Novel Host Target for Antiviral Strategies

Background. Cyclin-dependent kinase 8 (CDK8) is a multifaceted regulator and represents a catalytic component of the transcriptional Mediator complex. CDK8 activity, on the one hand, increases transcriptional elongation by the recruitment of Mediator/super elongation complexes, but, on the other hand, negatively regulates CDK7-controlled transcriptional initiation through inactivating cyclin H phosphorylation. Recently, these combined properties of CDK8 have also suggested its rate-limiting importance for herpesviral replication. Objectives. In this paper, we focused on human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and addressed the question of whether the pharmacological inhibition or knock-down of CDK8 may affect viral replication efficiency in cell culture models. Methods. A number of human and animal herpesviruses, as well as non-herpesviruses, were used to analyze the importance of CDK8 for viral replication in cell culture models, and to assess the antiviral efficacy of CDK8 inhibitors. Results. Using clinically relevant CDK8 inhibitors (CCT-251921, MSC-2530818, and BI-1347), HCMV replication was found strongly reduced even at nanomolar drug concentrations. The EC50 values were consistent for three different HCMV strains (i.e., AD169, TB40, and Merlin) analyzed in two human cell types (i.e., primary fibroblasts and astrocytoma cells), and the drugs comprised a low level of cytotoxicity. The findings highlighted the following: (i) the pronounced in vitro SI values of anti-HCMV activity obtained with CDK8 inhibitors; (ii) a confirmation of the anti-HCMV efficacy by CDK8-siRNA knock-down; (iii) a CDK8-dependent reduction in viral immediate early, early, and late protein levels; (iv) a main importance of CDK8 for viral late-stage replication; (v) several mechanistic aspects, which point to a strong impact on viral progeny production and release, but a lack of CDK8 relevance for viral entry or nuclear egress; (vi) a significant anti-HCMV drug synergy for combinations of inhibitors against host CDK8 and the viral kinase vCDK/pUL97 (maribavir); (vii) finally, a broad-spectrum antiviral activity, as seen for the comparison of selected α-, β-, γ-, and non-herpesviruses. Conclusions. In summary, these novel data provide evidence for the importance of CDK8 as a positive regulator of herpesviral replication efficiency, and moreover, suggest its exploitability as an antiviral target for novel strategies of host-directed drug development.

Expanding the adenovirus toolbox: reporter viruses for studying the dynamics of human adenovirus replication

To streamline standard virological assays, we developed a suite of nine fluorescent or bioluminescent replication competent human species C5 adenovirus reporter viruses that mimic their parental wild-type counterpart. These reporter viruses provide a rapid and quantitative readout of various aspects of viral infection and replication based on EGFP, mCherry, or NanoLuc measurement. Moreover, they permit real-time non-invasive measures of viral load, replication dynamics, and infection kinetics over the entire course of infection, allowing measurements that were not previously possible. This suite of replication competent reporter viruses increases the ease, speed, and adaptability of standard assays and has the potential to accelerate multiple areas of human adenovirus research.IMPORTANCEIn this work, we developed a versatile toolbox of nine HAdV-C5 reporter viruses and validated their functions in cell culture. These reporter viruses provide a rapid and quantitative readout of various aspects of viral infection and replication based on EGFP, mCherry, or NanoLuc measurement. The utility of these reporter viruses could also be extended for use in 3D cell culture, organoids, live cell imaging, or animal models, and provides a conceptual framework for the development of new reporter viruses representing other clinically relevant HAdV species.

Expanding the Scope of Adenoviral Vectors by Utilizing Novel Tools for Recombination and Vector Rescue

Recombinant adenoviruses are widely used in clinical and laboratory applications. Despite the wide variety of available sero- and genotypes, only a fraction is utilized in vivo. As adenoviruses are a large group of viruses, displaying many different tropisms, immune epitopes, and replication characteristics, the merits of translating these natural benefits into vector applications are apparent. This translation, however, proves difficult, since while research has investigated the application of these viruses, there are no universally applicable rules in vector design for non-classical adenovirus types. In this paper, we describe a generalized workflow that allows vectorization, rescue, and cloning of all adenoviral species to enable the rapid development of new vector variants. We show this using human and simian adenoviruses, further modifying a selection of them to investigate their gene transfer potential and build potential vector candidates for future applications.

Role of homologous recombination/recombineering on human adenovirus genome engineering: Not the only but the most competent solution

Adenoviruses typically cause mild illnesses, but severe diseases may occur primarily in immunodeficient individuals, particularly children. Recently, adenoviruses have garnered significant interest as a versatile tool in gene therapy, tumor treatment, and vaccine vector development. Over the past two decades, the advent of recombineering, a method based on homologous recombination, has notably enhanced the utility of adenoviral vectors in therapeutic applications. This review summarizes recent advancements in the use of human adenoviral vectors in medicine and discusses the pivotal role of recombineering in the development of these vectors. Additionally, it highlights the current achievements and potential future impact of therapeutic adenoviral vectors.

Development of oncolytic and gene therapy vectors based on adenovirus serotype 4 as an alternative to adenovirus serotype 5

BACKGROUND

Adenoviral vectors are among the most frequently used vectors for gene therapy and cancer treatment. Most vectors are derived from human adenovirus (Ad) serotype 5 despite limited applicability caused by pre-existing immunity and unfavorable liver tropism, whereas the other more than 100 known human serotypes remain largely unused. Here, we screened a library of human Ad types and identified Ad4 as a promising candidate vector.

METHODS

Reporter-gene-expressing viruses representative of the natural human Ad diversity were used to transduce an array of muscle cell lines and two- or three-dimensional tumor cultures. The time-course of transgene expression was monitored by fluorescence or luminescence measurements. To generate replication-deficient Ad4 vector genomes, successive homologous recombination was applied.

RESULTS

Ad4, 17 and 50 transduced human cardiomyocytes more efficiently than Ad5, whereas Ad37 was found to be superior in rhabdomyocytes. Despite its moderate transduction efficiency, Ad4 showed efficient and long-lasting gene expression in papillomavirus (HPV) positive tumor organoids. Therefore, we aimed to harness the potential of Ad4 for improved muscle transduction or oncolytic virotherapy of HPV-positive tumors. We deleted the E1 and E3 transcription units to produce first generation Ad vectors for gene therapy. The E1- and E1/E3-deleted vectors were replication-competent in HEK293 cells stably expressing E1 but not in the other cell lines tested. Furthermore, we show that the Ad5 E1 transcription unit can complement the replication of E1-deleted Ad4 vectors.

CONCLUSIONS

Our Ad4-based gene therapy vector platform contributes to the development of improved Ad vectors based on non-canonical serotypes for a broad range of applications.

The emerging role of recombineering in microbiology

Recombineering is a valuable technique for generating recombinant DNA in vivo, primarily in bacterial cells, and is based on homologous recombination using phage-encoded homologous recombinases, such as Redαβγ from the lambda phage and RecET from the Rac prophage. The recombineering technique can efficiently mediate homologous recombination using short homologous arms (∼50 bp) and is unlimited by the size of the DNA molecules or positions of restriction sites. In this review, we summarize characteristics of recombinases, mechanism of recombineering, and advances in recombineering for DNA manipulation in Escherichia coli and other bacteria. Furthermore, the broad applications of recombineering for mining new bioactive microbial natural products, and for viral mutagenesis, phage genome engineering, and understanding bacterial metabolism are also reviewed.

Muscle Specific Promotors for Gene Therapy - A Comparative Study in Proliferating and Differentiated Cells

BACKGROUND

Depending on the therapy approach and disease background, the heterogeneity of muscular tissues complicates the development of targeted gene therapy, where either expression in all muscle types or restriction to only one muscle type is warranted. Muscle specificity can be achieved using promotors mediating tissue specific and sustained physiological expression in the desired muscle types but limited activity in non-targeted tissue. Several muscle specific promotors have been described, but direct comparisons between them are lacking.

OBJECTIVE

Here we present a direct comparison of muscle specific Desmin-, MHCK7, microRNA206- and Calpain3 promotor.

METHODS

To directly compare these muscle specific promotors we utilized transfection of reporter plasmids using an in vitro model based on electrical pulse stimulation (EPS) to provoke sarcomere formation in 2D cell culture for quantification of promotor activities in far differentiated mouse and human myotubes.

RESULTS

We found that Desmin- and MHCK7 promotors showed stronger reporter gene expression levels in proliferating and differentiated myogenic cell lines than miR206 and CAPN3 promotor. However, Desmin and MHCK7 promotor promoted gene expression also cardiac cells whereas miR206 and CAPN3 promotor expression was restricted to skeletal muscle.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results provides direct comparison of muscle specific promotors with regard to expression strengths and specificity as this is important feature to avoid undesired transgene expression in non-target muscle cells for a desired therapy approach.

Human adenovirus lung disease: outbreaks, models of immune-response-driven acute lung injury and pandemic potential

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

An overview of epidemic, human adenovirus (HAdV) lung infections with proposed studies of the viral/host immune response interface to better understand mechanisms of immunopathogenesis, for development of improved responses to a potential HAdV pandemic.

RECENT FINDINGS

Emergent HAdV strains 7, 3, 4, 14 are the most common types associated with infection outbreaks. Recent outbreaks have revealed increased community spread, beyond epidemic group settings. The ongoing circulation of these virulent HAdV strains might allow for further HAdV adaptation, with increased HAdV spread and disease severity in the population that could theoretically result in expansion to a pandemic level.

SUMMARY

Public health screening has revealed spread of HAdV outbreak strains to the general community. Despite expanded awareness of viral respiratory diseases during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, there has been limited, systematic monitoring of HAdV infection in the population. The shift in clinical laboratories to a focus on molecular diagnostics and away from classical methods of viral characterization has reduced the distribution of outbreak HAdV strains to the research community to study mechanisms of pathogenesis. This change risks reduced development of new preventive and therapeutic strategies that could be needed in the event of more widespread HAdV epidemics.

Mouse models in COVID-19 research: analyzing the adaptive immune response

The emergence of SARS-CoV-2, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 causing the COVID-19 pandemic, resulted in a major necessity for scientific countermeasures. Investigations revealing the exact mechanisms of the SARS-CoV-2 pathogenesis provide the basis for the development of therapeutic measures and protective vaccines against COVID-19. Animal models are inevitable for infection and pre-clinical vaccination studies as well as therapeutic testing. A well-suited animal model, mimicking the pathology seen in human COVID-19 patients, is an important basis for these investigations. Several animal models were already used during SARS-CoV-2 studies with different clinical outcomes after SARS-CoV-2 infection. Here, we give an overview of different animal models used in SARS-CoV-2 infection studies with a focus on the mouse model. Mice provide a well-established animal model for laboratory use and several different mouse models have been generated and are being used in SARS-CoV-2 studies. Furthermore, the analysis of SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells during infection and in vaccination studies in mice is highlighted.

Targeting Oncolytic Adenoviruses to Cancer Cells Using a Designed Ankyrin Repeat Protein Lipocalin-2 Fusion Protein

Oncolytic viruses are a promising technology to attack cancer cells and to recruit immune cells to the tumor site. Since the Lipocalin-2 receptor (LCN2R) is expressed on most cancer cells, we used its ligand LCN2 to target oncolytic adenoviruses (Ads) to cancer cells. Therefore, we fused a Designed Ankyrin Repeat Protein (DARPin) adapter binding the knob of Ad type 5 (knob5) to LCN2 to retarget the virus toward LCN2R with the aim of analyzing the basic characteristics of this novel targeting approach. The adapter was tested in vitro with Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells stably expressing the LCN2R and on 20 cancer cell lines (CCLs) using an Ad5 vector encoding luciferase and green fluorescent protein. Luciferase assays with the LCN2 adapter (LA) showed 10-fold higher infection compared with blocking adapter (BA) in CHO cells expressing LCN2R and in cells not expressing the LCN2R. Most CCLs showed an increased viral uptake of LA-bound virus compared with BA-bound virus and for five CCLs viral uptake was comparable to unmodified Ad5. Flow cytometry and hexon immunostainings also revealed increased uptake of LA-bound Ads compared with BA-bound Ads in most tested CCLs. Virus spread was studied in 3D cell culture models and nine CCLs showed increased and earlier fluorescence signals for LA-bound virus compared with BA-bound virus. Mechanistically, we show that the LA increases viral uptake only in the absence of its ligand Enterobactin (Ent) and independently of iron. Altogether, we characterized a novel DARPin-based system resulting in enhanced uptake demonstrating potential for future oncolytic virotherapy.

The Adenovirus Vector Platform: Novel Insights into Rational Vector Design and Lessons Learned from the COVID-19 Vaccine

The adenovirus vector platform remains one of the most efficient toolboxes for generation of transfer vehicles used in gene therapy and virotherapy to treat tumors, as well as vaccines to protect from infectious diseases. The adenovirus genome and capsids can be modified using highly efficient techniques, and vectors can be produced at high titers, which facilitates their rapid adaptation to current needs and disease applications. Over recent years, the adenovirus vector platform has been in the center of attention for vaccine development against the ongoing coronavirus SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 pandemic. The worldwide deployment of these vaccines has greatly deepened the knowledge on virus-host interactions and highlighted the need to further improve the effectiveness and safety not only of adenovirus-based vaccines but also of gene therapy and oncolytic virotherapy vectors. Based on the current evidence, we discuss here how adenoviral vectors can be further improved by intelligent molecular design. This review covers the full spectrum of state-of-the-art strategies to avoid vector-induced side effects ranging from the vectorization of non-canonical adenovirus types to novel genome engineering techniques.

Influence of Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycans and Factor X on species D Human Adenovirus Uptake and Transduction

More than 100 human adenovirus (Ad) types were identified, of which species D comprises the largest group. Heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) were shown to function as cell surface receptors for cell binding and uptake of some Ads, but a systematic analysis of species D Ads is lacking. Previous research focused on Ad5 and blood coagulation factor X (FX) complexes, which revealed that Ad5 can transduce cells with low expression levels of its main coxsackievirus-adenovirus receptor in the presence of high HSPG expression levels in a FX dependent manner. Based on our reporter gene-tagged Ad-library, we explored for the first time a broad spectrum of species D Ads to study the role of HSPG on their cellular uptake. This study was performed on three Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cell lines with different forms of HSPG (only proteoglycan (745), non-sulfated HSPG (606) or sulfated HSPG (K1)). The effect of Ad:FX complexes on Ad uptake was explored in the presence of physiological levels of FX in blood (6-10 µg/mL). We found that sulfation of HSPG plays an important role in cellular uptake and transduction of FX-bound Ad5 but neither HSPG nor FX influenced uptake of all tested species D Ads. Because FX has no influence on transduction efficiencies of species D Ads and therefore may not bind to them, these Ads may not be protected from attack by neutralizing IgM antibodies or the complement pathway, which may have implications for species D Ads used as vaccine and gene therapy vectors.

HEHR: Homing Endonuclease-Mediated Homologous Recombination for Efficient Adenovirus Genome Engineering

Adenoviruses are non-enveloped linear double-stranded DNA viruses with over 100 types in humans. Adenovirus vectors have gained tremendous attention as gene delivery vehicles, as vaccine vectors and as oncolytic viruses. Although various methods have been used to generate adenoviral vectors, the vector-producing process remains technically challenging regarding efficacious genome modification. Based on our previously reported adenoviral genome modification streamline via linear–circular homologous recombination, we further develop an HEHR (combining Homing Endonucleases and Homologous Recombination) method to engineer adenoviral genomes more efficiently. I-PpoI, a rare endonuclease encoded by a group I intron, was introduced into the previously described ccdB counter-selection marker. We found that the I-PpoI pre-treatment of counter-selection containing parental plasmid increased the homologous recombination efficiency up to 100%. The flanking of the counter-selection marker with either single or double I-PpoI sites showed enhanced efficacy. In addition, we constructed a third counter-selection marker flanked by an alternative restriction enzyme: AbsI, which could be applied in case the I-PpoI site already existed in the transgene cassette that was previously inserted in the adenovirus genome. Together, HEHR can be applied for seamless sequence replacements, deletions and insertions. The advantages of HEHR in seamless mutagenesis will facilitate rational design of adenoviral vectors for diverse purposes.

Analysis of the Prevalence of Binding and Neutralizing Antibodies against 39 Human Adenovirus Types in Student Cohorts Reveals Low-Prevalence Types and a Decline in Binding Antibody Levels during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic

Vectors based on human adenoviruses (HAdVs) are important for the development of novel immunizations, oncolytic therapies, and gene therapies. The use of HAdV-based vaccines against Ebola virus, the rapid adaptation of the vector technology for vaccines against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), and their very good efficacy have shown the great potential of HAdV-based vaccines.

Properties of Adenovirus Vectors with Increased Affinity to DSG2 and the Potential Benefits of Oncolytic Approaches and Gene Therapy

Carcinomas are characterized by a widespread upregulation of intercellular junctions that create a barrier to immune response and drug therapy. Desmoglein 2 (DSG2) represents such a junction protein and serves as one adenovirus receptor. Importantly, the interaction between human adenovirus type 3 (Ad3) and DSG2 leads to the shedding of the binding domain followed by a decrease in the junction protein expression and transient tight junction opening. Junction opener 4 (JO-4), a small recombinant protein derived from the Ad3 fiber knob, was previously developed with a higher affinity to DSG2. JO-4 protein has been proven to enhance the effects of antibody therapy and chemotherapy and is now considered for clinical trials. However, the effect of the JO4 mutation in the context of a virus remains insufficiently studied. Therefore, we introduced the JO4 mutation to various adenoviral vectors to explore their infection properties. In the current experimental settings and investigated cell lines, the JO4-containing vectors showed no enhanced transduction compared with their parental vectors in DSG2-high cell lines. Moreover, in DSG2-low cell lines, the JO4 vectors presented a rather weakened effect. Interestingly, DSG2-negative cell line MIA PaCa-2 even showed resistance to JO4 vector infection, possibly due to the negative effect of JO4 mutation on the usage of another Ad3 receptor: CD46. Together, our observations suggest that the JO4 vectors may have an advantage to prevent CD46-mediated sequestration, thereby achieving DSG2-specific transduction.

A Human In Vitro Model to Study Adenoviral Receptors and Virus Cell Interactions

To develop adenoviral cell- or tissue-specific gene delivery, understanding of the infection mechanisms of adenoviruses is crucial. Several adenoviral attachment proteins such as CD46, CAR and sialic acid have been identified and studied. However, most receptor studies were performed on non-human cells. Combining our reporter gene-tagged adenovirus library with an in vitro human gene knockout model, we performed a systematic analysis of receptor usage comparing different adenoviruses side-by-side. The CRISPR/Cas9 system was used to knockout CD46 and CAR in the human lung epithelial carcinoma cell line A549. Knockout cells were infected with 22 luciferase-expressing adenoviruses derived from adenovirus species B, C, D and E. HAdV-B16, -B21 and -B50 from species B1 as well as HAdV-B34 and -B35 were found to be CD46-dependent. HAdV-C5 and HAdV-E4 from species E were found to be CAR-dependent. Regarding cell entry of HAdV-B3 and -B14 and all species D viruses, both CAR and CD46 play a role, and here, other receptors or attachment structures may also be important since transductions were reduced but not completely inhibited. The established human knockout cell model enables the identification of the most applicable adenovirus types for gene therapy and to further understand adenovirus infection biology.

Novel Group C Oncolytic Adenoviruses Carrying a miRNA Inhibitor Demonstrate Enhanced Oncolytic Activity In Vitro and In Vivo

Oncolytic adenoviruses (OAd) represent an attractive treatment option for cancer. Clinical efficacy of commonly utilized human adenovirus type 5 (Ad5)-based oncolytic viruses is limited by variable expression levels of the coxsackie- and adenovirus receptor (CAR) in tumor cells and high prevalence of neutralizing antibodies against human Ad5. However, previous studies have highlighted alternative human Ad types as promising candidates for oncolytic therapy. In this study, we generated novel OAds based on Ad1, -2, -5, and -6 derived from species C Ads. These OAds contain a 24-bp deletion in the early gene E1A for tumor selective replication and express the RNAi inhibitor P19. We examined these OAds for in vitro anticancer activity on various cancer cell lines derived from lung, colon, gynecologic, bone, and pancreatic carcinoma. In most surveyed cell lines, OAds based on Ad1, -2, and -6 demonstrated higher cell lysis capability compared with Ad5, suggesting enhanced oncolytic potential. Moreover, enhanced oncolytic activity was associated with P19 expression in a cell type-dependent manner. We further explored a A549 tumor xenograft mouse model to compare the novel OAds directly with Ad5 and H101, an oncolytic adenovirus used in clinical trials. These P19-containing OAds based on Ad1, -2, and -6 showed significantly decelerated tumor progression compared with H101, indicating better antitumor potency in vivo. Our studies provide a novel path for OAd development based on alternative Ad types with improved effectiveness by RNA interference suppression.

Direct cloning of a herpesvirus genome for rapid generation of infectious BAC clones

INTRODUCTION

The herpesviridae are DNA viruses with large and complicated genomes. The herpesvirus bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs) have been useful for generating recombinant viruses to study the biology and pathogenesis. However, the conventional method using homologous recombination is not only time consuming but also prone to accumulate attenuating mutations during serial passage of the virus in cells. Elimination of the BAC vector from the recombinant viral genome requires additional step for phenotypically consistence with the original strain.

OBJECTIVES

To generate a streamlined approach for generating infectious BAC clones of herpesvirus.

METHODS

The 142-kb pseudorabies virus genome was directly cloned into a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) in Escherichia coli by Exonuclease Combined with RecET recombination (ExoCET). Placement of the BAC vector at the terminus of the linear virus genome enabled excision of the BAC backbone from the viral genome by restriction endonuclease for delivery into mammalian cells, with the subsequent rapid rescue of virus that was genetically identical to the original strain.

RESULTS

This new approach for molecular cloning of the genome from a large DNA virus and isolation of pure virus lacking the BAC vector from transfected mammalian cells bypass the tedious and time-consuming method of multiple rounds of plaque purification. The viral BAC was stable in E. coli, allowing further mutagenesis mediated by the Red system or various site-specific recombination methods.

CONCLUSION

An efficient method for construction of infectious clones of herpesvirus was established. It is expected to be potentially useful for other viruses with large double-stranded DNA genomes.

Human Adenovirus Type 5 Infection Leads to Nuclear Envelope Destabilization and Membrane Permeability Independently of Adenovirus Death Protein

The human adenovirus type 5 (HAdV5) infects epithelial cells of the upper and lower respiratory tract. The virus causes lysis of infected cells and thus enables spread of progeny virions to neighboring cells for the next round of infection. The mechanism of adenovirus virion egress across the nuclear barrier is not known. The human adenovirus death protein (ADP) facilitates the release of virions from infected cells and has been hypothesized to cause membrane damage. Here, we set out to answer whether ADP does indeed increase nuclear membrane damage. We analyzed the nuclear envelope morphology using a combination of fluorescence and state-of-the-art electron microscopy techniques, including serial block-face scanning electron microscopy and electron cryo-tomography of focused ion beam-milled cells. We report multiple destabilization phenotypes of the nuclear envelope in HAdV5 infection. These include reduction of lamin A/C at the nuclear envelope, large-scale membrane invaginations, alterations in double membrane separation distance and small-scale membrane protrusions. Additionally, we measured increased nuclear membrane permeability and detected nuclear envelope lesions under cryoconditions. Unexpectedly, and in contrast to previous hypotheses, ADP did not have an effect on lamin A/C reduction or nuclear permeability.

Gene Therapy "Made in Germany": A Historical Perspective, Analysis of the Status Quo, and Recommendations for Action by the German Society for Gene Therapy

Gene therapies have been successfully applied to treat severe inherited and acquired disorders. Although research and development are sufficiently well funded in Germany and while the output of scientific publications and patents is comparable with the leading nations in gene therapy, the country lags noticeably behind with regard to the number of both clinical studies and commercialized gene therapy products. In this article, we give a historical perspective on the development of gene therapy in Germany, analyze the current situation from the standpoint of the German Society for Gene Therapy (DG-GT), and define recommendations for action that would enable our country to generate biomedical and economic advantages from innovations in this sector, instead of merely importing advanced therapy medicinal products. Inter alia, we propose (1) to harmonize and simplify regulatory licensing processes to enable faster access to advanced therapies, and (2) to establish novel coordination, support and funding structures that facilitate networking of the key players. Such a center would provide the necessary infrastructure and know-how to translate cell and gene therapies to patients on the one hand, and pave the way for commercialization of these promising and innovative technologies on the other. Hence, these courses of action would not only benefit the German biotech and pharma landscape but also the society and the patients in need of new treatment options.

Enhanced Antiviral Function of Magnesium Chloride-Modified Heparin on a Broad Spectrum of Viruses

Previous studies reported on the broad-spectrum antiviral function of heparin. Here we investigated the antiviral function of magnesium-modified heparin and found that modified heparin displayed a significantly enhanced antiviral function against human adenovirus (HAdV) in immortalized and primary cells. Nuclear magnetic resonance analyses revealed a conformational change of heparin when complexed with magnesium. To broadly explore this discovery, we tested the antiviral function of modified heparin against herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and found that the replication of HSV-1 was even further decreased compared to aciclovir. Moreover, we investigated the antiviral effect against the new severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and measured a 55-fold decreased viral load in the supernatant of infected cells associated with a 38-fold decrease in virus growth. The advantage of our modified heparin is an increased antiviral effect compared to regular heparin.

KIR3DS1 directs NK cell-mediated protection against human adenovirus infections

[Figure: see text].

Virotherapy in Germany-Recent Activities in Virus Engineering, Preclinical Development, and Clinical Studies

Virotherapy research involves the development, exploration, and application of oncolytic viruses that combine direct killing of cancer cells by viral infection, replication, and spread (oncolysis) with indirect killing by induction of anti-tumor immune responses. Oncolytic viruses can also be engineered to genetically deliver therapeutic proteins for direct or indirect cancer cell killing. In this review—as part of the special edition on “State-of-the-Art Viral Vector Gene Therapy in Germany”—the German community of virotherapists provides an overview of their recent research activities that cover endeavors from screening and engineering viruses as oncolytic cancer therapeutics to their clinical translation in investigator-initiated and sponsored multi-center trials. Preclinical research explores multiple viral platforms, including new isolates, serotypes, or fitness mutants, and pursues unique approaches to engineer them towards increased safety, shielded or targeted delivery, selective or enhanced replication, improved immune activation, delivery of therapeutic proteins or RNA, and redirecting antiviral immunity for cancer cell killing. Moreover, several oncolytic virus-based combination therapies are under investigation. Clinical trials in Germany explore the safety and potency of virotherapeutics based on parvo-, vaccinia, herpes, measles, reo-, adeno-, vesicular stomatitis, and coxsackie viruses, including viruses encoding therapeutic proteins or combinations with immune checkpoint inhibitors. These research advances represent exciting vantage points for future endeavors of the German virotherapy community collectively aimed at the implementation of effective virotherapeutics in clinical oncology.

Human Species D Adenoviruses Isolated from Diarrheal Feces Show Low Infection Rates in Primary Nasal Epithelial Cells

The importance of adenovirus (Ad) research is significantly increasing with respect to virotherapy for vaccine development, tumor, and gene therapy. Due to the different species and subtypes of this virus, the characterization of the biological significance of especially rare Ad is necessary. Previously, rare Ad types 70, 73, and 74 were originally isolated from fecal samples of immunocompromised patients and they represent recombinants of other Ad types. Here we investigated transduction experiments of these reporter gene tagged Ad types in primary cells exemplified by subject-derived primary nasal epithelial cells (NAEPCs). To analyze the transduction rates, we performed flow cytometry, quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR), and cytokine analyses 25 h post-infection. We found that, in contrast to Ad type 5 (as a positive control), the transduction rates of NAEPCs with Ad types 70, 73, and 74 were interestingly low. The major Ad receptor (coxsackievirus-adenovirus receptor and CD46) expression levels showed no significant change after infection with Ad types 70, 73 and 74. Moreover, Interleukin 6 (IL-6) was not released after in vitro Ad transduction. Due to the high risk of developing life-threatening complications in immunocompromised patients by these human species D Ads, even more attention needs to be investigated into the development of diagnostic and therapeutic concepts to prevent and treat those opportunistic infections in susceptible patients.

From Submerged Cultures to 3D Cell Culture Models: Evolution of Nasal Epithelial Cells in Asthma Research and Virus Infection

Understanding the response to viral infection in the context of respiratory diseases is of significant importance. Recently, there has been more focus on the role of the nasal epithelium in disease modeling. Here, we provide an overview of different submerged, organotypic 3D and spheroid cell culture models of nasal epithelial cells, which were used to study asthma and allergy with a special focus on virus infection. In detail, this review summarizes the importance, benefits, and disadvantages of patient-derived cell culture models of nasal- and bronchial epithelial cells, including a comparison of these cell culture models and a discussion on why investigators should consider using nasal epithelial cells in their research. Exposure experiments, simple virus transduction analyses as well as genetic studies can be performed in these models, which may provide first insights into the complexity of molecular signatures and may open new doors for drug discovery and biomarker research.

A Novel, Broad-Acting Peptide Inhibitor of Double-Stranded DNA Virus Gene Expression and Replication

Viral infections are a global disease burden with only a limited number of antiviral agents available. Due to newly emerging viral pathogens and increasing occurrence of drug resistance, there is a continuous need for additional therapeutic options, preferably with extended target range. In the present study, we describe a novel antiviral peptide with broad activity against several double-stranded DNA viruses. The 22-mer peptide TAT-I24 potently neutralized viruses such as herpes simplex viruses, adenovirus type 5, cytomegalovirus, vaccinia virus, and simian virus 40 in cell culture models, while being less active against RNA viruses. The peptide TAT-I24 therefore represents a novel and promising drug candidate for use against double-stranded DNA viruses.

House Dust Mite Exposure Causes Increased Susceptibility of Nasal Epithelial Cells to Adenovirus Infection

Adenovirus (AdV) infections in the respiratory tract may cause asthma exacerbation and allergic predisposition, and the house dust mite (HDM) may aggravate virus-induced asthma exacerbations. However, the underlying mechanisms of whether and how AdV affects asthmatic patients remains unclear. To address this question, we investigated nasal epithelial cells (NAEPCs) derived from a pediatric exacerbation study cohort for experimental analyses. We analyzed twenty-one different green-fluorescent protein- and luciferase-tagged AdV types in submerged 2D and organotypic 3D cell culture models. Transduction experiments revealed robust transduction of AdV type 5 (AdV5) in NAEPCs, which was associated with an increased uptake of AdV5 in the presence of HDM. In healthy and asthmatic NAEPCs exposed to HDM before infection, we observed a time- and dose-dependent increase of AdV5 uptake associated with upregulation of entry receptors for AdV5. Furthermore, electron microscopic and histologic analyses of 3D cell cultures revealed an impairment of the respiratory cilia after HDM exposition. This ex vivo pilot study shows the impact of AdV infection and HDM exposition in a primary cell culture model for asthma.

High-Throughput Cloning and Characterization of Emerging Adenovirus Types 70, 73, 74, and 75

Recently an increasing number of new adenovirus types associated with type-dependent pathogenicity have been identified. However, identification of these clinical isolates represents the very first step to characterize novel pathogens. For deeper analyses, these adenoviruses need to be further characterized in basic virology experiments or they could be applied in translational research. To achieve this goal, it is essential to get genetic access and to enable genetic modification of these novel adenovirus genomes (deletion, insertion, and mutation). Here we demonstrate a high-throughput approach to get genetic access to new adenoviruses via homologous recombination. We first defined the cloning conditions regarding homology arm-length and input adenoviral genome amounts. Then we cloned four naturally occurring adenoviruses (Ad70, Ad73, Ad74, and Ad75) into easy-to-manipulate plasmids and genetically modified them by reporter gene insertion. Three recombinant adenoviruses (Ad70, Ad73, and Ad74) containing a reporter cassette were successfully reconstituted. These novel reporter-labeled adenoviruses were further characterized using the inserted luciferase reporter with respect to receptor usage, presence of anti-adenovirus antibodies, and tropism in vitro. The identified receptor usage, the relatively low prevalence of anti-adenovirus antibodies, and the various cancer cell line transduction pattern are important features of these new pathogens providing essential information for their therapeutic application.

Adenoviral Vectors Armed with PAPILLOMAVIRUs Oncogene Specific CRISPR/Cas9 Kill Human-Papillomavirus-Induced Cervical Cancer Cells

Human papillomaviruses (HPV) cause malignant epithelial cancers including cervical carcinoma, non-melanoma skin and head and neck cancer. They drive tumor development through the expression of their oncoproteins E6 and E7. Designer nucleases were shown to be efficient to specifically destroy HPV16 and HPV18 oncogenes to induce cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Here, we used high-capacity adenoviral vectors (HCAdVs) expressing the complete CRISPR/Cas9 machinery specific for HPV18-E6 or HPV16-E6. Cervical cancer cell lines SiHa and CaSki containing HPV16 and HeLa cells containing HPV18 genomes integrated into the cellular genome, as well as HPV-negative cancer cells were transduced with HPV-type-specific CRISPR-HCAdV. Upon adenoviral delivery, the expression of HPV-type-specific CRISPR/Cas9 resulted in decreased cell viability of HPV-positive cervical cancer cell lines, whereas HPV-negative cells were unaffected. Transduced cervical cancer cells showed increased apoptosis induction and decreased proliferation compared to untreated or HPV negative control cells. This suggests that HCAdV can serve as HPV-specific cancer gene therapeutic agents when armed with HPV-type-specific CRISPR/Cas9. Based on the versatility of the CRISPR/Cas9 system, we anticipate that our approach can contribute to personalized treatment options specific for the respective HPV type present in each individual tumor.

Transient Chimeric Ad5/37 Fiber Enhances NK-92 Carrier Cell-Mediated Delivery of Oncolytic Adenovirus Type 5 to Tumor Cells

Methods for customizing and improving virus vector tropism are limited. In this study, we introduce a microRNA (miRNA)-regulated molecular method to enhance vector transduction without genome alteration. Based on the importance of adenovirus (Ad) vectors for cancer and gene treatment, we exemplified this technology for an Ad type 5 (Ad5) vector temporally carrying a knob from Ad37. We constructed a producer cell line stably expressing a fused Ad5/37 chimeric fiber comprising the Ad5 shaft-tail and the Ad37 knob and a miRNA inhibiting Ad5 knob expression (HEK293-Ad5/37-miRNA). The chimeric Ad5/37 vector resulted in enhanced transduction rates in Ad37 adequately and Ad5 poorly transduced cells. Particularly, encapsidation of the oncolytic Ad5-human telomerase reverse transcriptase (hTERT) vector genome into the chimeric Ad5/37 capsid showed efficient transduction of NK-92 carrier cells. These infected carrier cells then delivered the oncolytic vector to tumor cells, which resulted in enhanced Ad5-hTERT-mediated tumor cell killing. We show that this transiently capsid-modified chimeric vector carrying an Ad5 genome displayed higher transduction efficiencies of natural killer cell-derived NK-92 cells utilized as carriers in cancer immune therapy. In summary, transiently modified adenoviral vectors will have important implications for cancer and gene therapy.

Retargeting adenoviruses for therapeutic applications and vaccines

Adenoviruses (Ads) are robust vectors for therapeutic applications and vaccines, but their use can be limited by differences in their in vitro and in vivo pharmacologies. This review emphasizes that there is not just one Ad, but a whole virome of diverse viruses that can be used as therapeutics. It discusses that true vector targeting involves not only retargeting viruses, but importantly also detargeting the viruses from off-target cells.

Spectrum-Wide Exploration of Human Adenoviruses for Breast Cancer Therapy

Oncolytic adenoviruses (Ads) are promising tools for cancer therapeutics. However, most Ad-based therapies utilize Ad type 5 (Ad5), which displays unsatisfying efficiency in clinical trials, partly due to the low expression levels of its primary coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor (CAR) on tumor cells. Since the efficacy of virotherapy strongly relies on efficient transduction of targeted tumor cells, initial screening of a broad range of viral agents to identify the most effective vehicles is essential. Using a novel Ad library consisting of numerous human Ads representing known Ad species, we evaluated the transduction efficiencies in four breast cancer (BC) cell lines. For each cell line over 20 Ad types were screened in a high-throughput manner based on reporter assays. Ad types featuring high transduction efficiencies were further investigated with respect to the percentage of transgene-positive cells and efficiencies of cellular entry in individual cell lines. Additionally, oncolytic assay was performed to test tumor cell lysis efficacy of selected Ad types. We found that all analyzed BC cell lines show low expression levels of CAR, while alternative receptors such as CD46, DSG-2, and integrins were also detected. We identified Ad3, Ad35, Ad37, and Ad52 as potential candidates for BC virotherapy.

Factors Which Contribute to the Immunogenicity of Non-replicating Adenoviral Vectored Vaccines

Adenoviral vectors are a safe and potently immunogenic vaccine delivery platform. Non-replicating Ad vectors possess several attributes which make them attractive vaccines for infectious disease, including their capacity for high titer growth, ease of manipulation, safety, and immunogenicity in clinical studies, as well as their compatibility with clinical manufacturing and thermo-stabilization procedures. In general, Ad vectors are immunogenic vaccines, which elicit robust transgene antigen-specific cellular (namely CD8+ T cells) and/or humoral immune responses. A large number of adenoviruses isolated from humans and non-human primates, which have low seroprevalence in humans, have been vectorized and tested as vaccines in animal models and humans. However, a distinct hierarchy of immunological potency has been identified between diverse Ad vectors, which unfortunately limits the potential use of many vectors which have otherwise desirable manufacturing characteristics. The precise mechanistic factors which underlie the profound disparities in immunogenicity are not clearly defined and are the subject of ongoing, detailed investigation. It has been suggested that a combination of factors contribute to the potent immunogenicity of particular Ad vectors, including the magnitude and duration of vaccine antigen expression following immunization. Furthermore, the excessive induction of Type I interferons by some Ad vectors has been suggested to impair transgene expression levels, dampening subsequent immune responses. Therefore, the induction of balanced, but not excessive stimulation of innate signaling is optimal. Entry factor binding or receptor usage of distinct Ad vectors can also affect their in vivo tropism following administration by different routes. The abundance and accessibility of innate immune cells and/or antigen-presenting cells at the site of injection contributes to early innate immune responses to Ad vaccination, affecting the outcome of the adaptive immune response. Although a significant amount of information exists regarding the tropism determinants of the common human adenovirus type-5 vector, very little is known about the receptor usage and tropism of rare species or non-human Ad vectors. Increased understanding of how different facets of the host response to Ad vectors contribute to their immunological potency will be essential for the development of optimized and customized Ad vaccine platforms for specific diseases.

Expanding the Spectrum of Adenoviral Vectors for Cancer Therapy

Adenoviral vectors (AdVs) have attracted much attention in the fields of vaccine development and treatment for diseases such as genetic disorders and cancer. In this review, we discuss the utility of AdVs in cancer therapies. In recent years, AdVs were modified as oncolytic AdVs (OAs) that possess the characteristics of cancer cell-specific replication and killing. Different carriers such as diverse cells and extracellular vesicles are being explored for delivering OAs into cancer sites after systemic administration. In addition, there are also various strategies to improve cancer-specific replication of OAs, mainly through modifying the early region 1 (E1) of the virus genome. It has been documented that oncolytic viruses (OVs) function through stimulating the immune system, resulting in the inhibition of cancer progression and, in combination with classical immune modulators, the anti-cancer effect of OAs can be even further enforced. To enhance the cancer treatment efficacy, OAs are also combined with other standard treatments, including surgery, chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Adenovirus type 5 (Ad5) has mainly been explored to develop vectors for cancer treatment with different modulations. Only a limited number of the more than 100 identified AdV types were converted into OAs and, therefore, the construction of an adenovirus library for the screening of potential novel OA candidates is essential. Here, we provide a state-of-the-art overview of currently performed and completed clinic trials with OAs and an adenovirus library, providing novel possibilities for developing innovative adenoviral vectors for cancer treatment.

A Zoonotic Adenoviral Human Pathogen Emerged through Genomic Recombination among Human and Nonhuman Simian Hosts

Genomics analysis of a historically intriguing and predicted emergent human adenovirus (HAdV) pathogen, which caused pneumonia and death, provides insight into a novel molecular evolution pathway involving "ping-pong" zoonosis and anthroponosis. The genome of this promiscuous pathogen is embedded with evidence of unprecedented multiple, multidirectional, stable, and reciprocal cross-species infections of hosts from three species (human, chimpanzee, and bonobo). This recombinant genome, typed as HAdV-B76, is identical to two recently reported simian AdV (SAdV) genomes isolated from chimpanzees and bonobos. Additionally, the presence of a critical adenoviral replication element found in HAdV genomes, in addition to genes that are highly similar to counterparts in other HAdVs, reinforces its potential as a human pathogen. Reservoirs in nonhuman hosts may explain periods of apparent absence and then reemergence of human adenoviral pathogens, as well as present pathways for the genesis of those thought to be newly emergent. The nature of the HAdV-D76 genome has implications for the use of SAdVs as gene delivery vectors in human gene therapy and vaccines, selected to avoid preexisting and potentially fatal host immune responses to HAdV.IMPORTANCE An emergent adenoviral human pathogen, HAdV-B76, associated with a fatality in 1965, shows a remarkable degree of genome identity with two recently isolated simian adenoviruses that contain cross-species genome recombination events from three hosts: human, chimpanzee, and bonobo. Zoonosis (nonhuman-to-human transmission) and anthroponosis (human to nonhuman transmission) may play significant roles in the emergence of human adenoviral pathogens.

Enhanced Tropism of Species B1 Adenoviral-Based Vectors for Primary Human Airway Epithelial Cells

Adenoviruses are efficient vehicles for transducing airway epithelial cells. Human adenoviruses (Ads) are classified into seven species termed A–G. Most species use the coxsackie-adenovirus receptor (CAR) as a primary cellular receptor. Ad group B is notable because it is further divided into groups B1 and B2 and its members use CD46 or desmoglein 2 (DSG2) as cellular receptors. To date, human Ad types 2 and 5 have been the predominant choices for preclinical and clinical trials using Ad-based viral vectors in the airways. In this study, we screened 14 Ad types representing species C, B1, B2, D, and E. Using well-differentiated primary cultures of human airway epithelial cells (HAEs), we examined transduction efficiency. Based on GFP or nanoluciferase expression, multiple Ad types transduced HAEs as well as or better than Ad5. Ad3, Ad21, and Ad14 belong to species B and had notable transduction properties. We further examined the transduction properties of conditionally reprogrammed airway basal cells and primary basal cells from human lung donors. Again, the transduction efficiency of species B members outperformed the other types. These data suggest that adenoviral vectors based on species B transduce fully differentiated epithelial cells and progenitor cells in the human airways better than Ad5.

Viral Vector-Based Delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 and Donor DNA for Homology-Directed Repair in an In Vitro Model for Canine Hemophilia B

Gene therapy represents an attractive alternative to treat hemophilia B. Here we established three hepatocyte-derived cell lines based on Huh7, PLC/PRF/5, and Hep3B cells stably carrying a mutated canine FIX (cFIXmut) transgene containing a single point mutation in the catalytic domain. Based on these in vitro models resembling a commonly used canine large animal model, the tetracycline-controlled transcriptional activator (Tet-on)-inducible CRISPR/Cas9 system and an optimized donor were used to correct mutated cFIX gene through homology-directed repair (HDR). For efficient delivery of designer nuclease and donor DNA, we produced a high-capacity adenovirus vector type 5 (HCAdV5) containing the Tet-on-inducible cFIX-specific CRISPR/Cas9 system and a single-stranded adeno-associated virus type 2 vector (ssAAV2) containing the modified donor. Moreover, we designed a single HCAdV5 delivering all components for HDR. Our amplification-refractory mutation system based on qPCR analysis (ARMS-qPCR) revealed that the single vector application in Huh7-cFIXmut cells resulted in up to 5.52% HDR efficiencies, which was superior to the two-vector strategy. Furthermore the single vector also resulted in increased phenotypic correction efficiencies assayed by ELISA. We conclude that HDR in combination with viral vector delivery holds great promise for the correction of mutated FIX in disease models.

Effect of cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) on human adenoviruses is adenovirus type-dependent

More than 70 human adenovirus types were identified divided into 7 different species (A-G). Diseases caused by human adenoviruses are type-dependent and can range from mild to severe respiratory infections, gastrointestinal infections or eye infections such as epidemic keratoconjunctivitis. Unfortunately there is no specific anti-adenovirus therapy available. Here we addressed the question whether treatment with cold atmospheric plasma (CAP) for anti-adenoviral therapy such as virus-mediated ulcerations may be feasible. CAP has already been explored for the treatment of dermatological diseases such as chronic wounds. To investigate whether CAP is an effective antiviral tool, purified human adenovirus types derived from different human adenovirus species (HAdV -4, -5, -20, -35, -37, -50) tagged with luciferase were treated with defined dosages of plasma. The CAP treatment was varied by incrementally increasing the time span of CAP treatment. After CAP treatment, the virus containing solution was added to eukaryotic cells and the viral load was determined by measurement of luciferase expression levels. Through the plasma treatment the adenovirus driven luciferase expression directly correlating with adenovirus transduction efficiencies could be reduced for HAdV-5 and HAdV-37. Plasma treatment had no influence on adenovirus derived luciferase expression levels for HAdV-4 and HAdV-50 and it even had a positive effect on luciferase expression levels for HAdV-20 and HAdV-35. These results suggest that CAP has a type dependent effect on adenoviruses and that infectivity can be even increased for certain adenovirus types. Further studies should address the mechanisms behind this phenomenon. In summary we demonstrate that CAP may represent an interesting option for antiviral treatment in a virus type dependent manner.

Human adenovirus type 17 from species D transduces endothelial cells and human CD46 is involved in cell entry

More than 70 human adenoviruses with type-dependent pathogenicity have been identified but biological information about the majority of these virus types is scarce. Here we employed multiple sequence alignments and structural information to predict receptor usage for the development of an adenoviral vector with novel biological features. We report the generation of a cloned adenovirus based on human adenovirus type 17 (HAdV17) with high sequence homology to the well characterized human adenovirus type 37 (HAdV37) that causes epidemic keratoconjunctivitis (EKC). Our study revealed that human CD46 (CD46) is involved in cell entry of HAdV17. Moreover, we found that HAdV17 infects endothelial cells (EC) in vitro including primary cells at higher efficiencies compared to the commonly used human adenovirus type 5 (HAdV5). Using a human CD46 transgenic mouse model, we observed that HAdV17 displays a broad tropism in vivo after systemic injection and that it transduces ECs in this mouse model. We conclude that the HAdV17-based vector may provide a novel platform for gene therapy.

Recent Advances in Preclinical Developments Using Adenovirus Hybrid Vectors

Adenovirus (Ad)-based vectors are efficient gene-transfer vehicles to deliver foreign DNA into living organisms, offering large cargo capacity and low immunogenicity and genotoxicity. As Ad shows low integration rates of their genomes into host chromosomes, vector-derived gene expression decreases due to continuous cell cycling in regenerating tissues and dividing cell populations. To overcome this hurdle, adenoviral delivery can be combined with mechanisms leading to maintenance of therapeutic DNA and long-term effects of the desired treatment. Several hybrid Ad vectors (AdV) exploiting various strategies for long-term treatment have been developed and characterized. This review summarizes recent developments of preclinical approaches using hybrid AdVs utilizing either the Sleeping Beauty transposase system for somatic integration into host chromosomes or designer nucleases, including transcription activator-like effector nucleases and clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated protein-9 nuclease for permanent gene editing. Further options on how to optimize these vectors further are discussed, which may lead to future clinical applications of these versatile gene-therapy tools.

One-Vector System for Multiplexed CRISPR/Cas9 against Hepatitis B Virus cccDNA Utilizing High-Capacity Adenoviral Vectors

High-capacity adenoviral vectors (HCAdVs) devoid of all coding genes are powerful tools to deliver large DNA cargos into cells. Here HCAdVs were designed to deliver a multiplexed complete CRISPR/Cas9 nuclease system or a complete pair of transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) directed against the hepatitis B virus (HBV) genome. HBV, which remains a serious global health burden, forms covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) as a persistent DNA species in infected cells. This cccDNA promotes the chronic carrier status, and it represents a major hurdle in the treatment of chronic HBV infection. To date, only one study demonstrated viral delivery of a CRISPR/Cas9 system and a single guide RNA (gRNA) directed against HBV by adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors. The advancement of this study is the co-delivery of multiple gRNA expression cassettes along with the Cas9 expression cassette in one HCAdV. Treatment of HBV infection models resulted in a significant reduction of HBV antigen production and the introduction of mutations into the HBV genome. In the transduction experiments, the HBV genome, including the HBV cccDNA, was degraded by the CRISPR/Cas9 system. In contrast, the combination of two parts of a TALEN pair in one vector could not be proven to yield an active system. In conclusion, we successfully delivered the CRISPR/Cas9 system containing three gRNAs using HCAdV, and we demonstrated its antiviral effect.

Novel Vector Construction Based on Alternative Adenovirus Types via Homologous Recombination

Adenoviral vector (AdV) is one of the most used vectors in gene therapy clinical trials. However the therapeutic effect of AdV is limited due to preexisting immunity to the currently used human adenovirus type 5 and pre-decided vector tropism. It is highly demanded to develop novel AdVs originated from other types than adenovirus type 5. Here, we describe a method for direct cloning of adenovirus utilizing linear-linear homologous recombination, followed by rapid adenoviral genome modification via linear-circular homologous recombination. A plasmid bearing chosen adenoviral genome with the desired modification is generated in three weeks, from which a novel AdV can be reconstituted.

☆DNA assembly technique simplifies the construction of infectious clone of fowl adenovirus

Plasmid bearing adenovirus genome is generally constructed with the method of homologous recombination in E. coli BJ5183 strain. Here, we utilized Gibson gene assembly technique to generate infectious clone of fowl adenovirus 4 (FAdV-4). Primers flanked with partial inverted terminal repeat (ITR) sequence of FAdV-4 were synthesized to amplify a plasmid backbone containing kanamycin-resistant gene and pBR322 origin (KAN-ORI). DNA assembly was carried out by combining the KAN-ORI fragment, virus genomic DNA and DNA assembly master mix. E. coli competent cells were transformed with the assembled product, and plasmids (pKFAV4) were extracted and confirmed to contain viral genome by restriction analysis and sequencing. Virus was successfully rescued from linear pKFAV4-transfected chicken LMH cells. This approach was further verified in cloning of human adenovirus 5 genome. Our results indicated that DNA assembly technique simplified the construction of infectious clone of adenovirus, suggesting its possible application in virus traditional or reverse genetics.

CRISPR/Cas9 delivery with one single adenoviral vector devoid of all viral genes

The Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 system revolutionized the field of gene editing but viral delivery of the CRISPR/Cas9 system has not been fully explored. Here we adapted clinically relevant high-capacity adenoviral vectors (HCAdV) devoid of all viral genes for the delivery of the CRISPR/Cas9 machinery using a single viral vector. We present a platform enabling fast transfer of the Cas9 gene and gRNA expression units into the HCAdV genome including the option to choose between constitutive or inducible Cas9 expression and gRNA multiplexing. Efficacy and versatility of this pipeline was exemplified by producing different CRISPR/Cas9-HCAdV targeting the human papillomavirus (HPV) 18 oncogene E6, the dystrophin gene causing Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) and the HIV co-receptor C-C chemokine receptor type 5 (CCR5). All CRISPR/Cas9-HCAdV proved to be efficient to deliver the respective CRISPR/Cas9 expression units and to introduce the desired DNA double strand breaks at their intended target sites in immortalized and primary cells.

Generation and characterization of a novel candidate gene therapy and vaccination vector based on human species D adenovirus type 56

The vectorization of rare human adenovirus (HAdV) types will widen our knowledge of this family and their interaction with cells, tissues and organs. In this study we focus on HAdV-56, a member of human Ad species D, and create ease-of-use cloning systems to generate recombinant HAdV-56 vectors carrying foreign genes. We present in vitro transduction profiles for HAdV-56 in direct comparison to the most commonly used HAdV-5-based vector. In vivo characterizations demonstrate that when it is delivered intravenously (i.v.) HAdV-56 mainly targets the spleen and, to a lesser extent, the lungs, whilst largely bypassing liver transduction in mice. HAdV-56 triggered robust inflammatory and cellular immune responses, with higher induction of IFNγ, TNFα, IL5, IL6, IP10, MCP1 and MIG1 compared to HAdV-5 following i.v. administration. We also investigated its potential as a vaccine vector candidate by performing prime immunizations in mice with HAdV-56 encoding luciferase (HAdV-56-Luc). Direct comparisons were made to HAdV-26, a highly potent human vaccine vector currently in phase II clinical trials. HAdV-56-Luc induced luciferase 'antigen'-specific IFNγ-producing cells and anti-HAdV-56 neutralizing antibodies in Balb/c mice, demonstrating a near identical profile to that of HAdV-26. Taken together, the data presented provides further insight into human Ad receptor/co-receptor usage, and the first report on HAdV-56 vectors and their potential for gene therapy and vaccine applications.