Video gaming and working memory: a large-scale cross-sectional correlative study

Comparing the cognitive performance of action video game players and age-matched controls following a cognitively fatiguing task: A stage 2 registered report

Recent work demonstrates that those who regularly play action video games (AVGs) consistently outperform non-gamer (NG) controls on tests of various cognitive abilities. AVGs place high demands on several cognitive functions and are often engaged with for long periods of time (e.g., over 2 h), predisposing players to experiencing cognitive fatigue. The detrimental effects of cognitive fatigue have been widely studied in various contexts where accurate performance is crucial, including aviation, military, and sport. Even though AVG players may be prone to experiencing cognitive fatigue, this topic has received little research attention to date. In this study, we compared the effect of a cognitively fatiguing task on the subsequent cognitive performance of action video game players and NG control participants. Our results indicated AVGs showed superior spatial working memory and complex attention abilities while showing no difference from NGs on simple attention performance. Additionally, we found that our cognitive fatigue and control interventions did not differentially affect the cognitive performance of AVGs and NGs in this study. This pre-registered study provides evidence that AVGs show superior cognitive abilities in comparison to a non-gaming population, but do not appear more resilient to cognitive fatigue.

Unicorn, Hare, or Tortoise? Using Machine Learning to Predict Working Memory Training Performance

People differ considerably in the extent to which they benefit from working memory (WM) training. Although there is increasing research focusing on individual differences associated with WM training outcomes, we still lack an understanding of which specific individual differences, and in what combination, contribute to inter-individual variations in training trajectories. In the current study, 568 undergraduates completed one of several N-back intervention variants over the course of two weeks. Participants' training trajectories were clustered into three distinct training patterns (high performers, intermediate performers, and low performers). We applied machine-learning algorithms to train a binary tree model to predict individuals' training patterns relying on several individual difference variables that have been identified as relevant in previous literature. These individual difference variables included pre-existing cognitive abilities, personality characteristics, motivational factors, video game experience, health status, bilingualism, and socioeconomic status. We found that our classification model showed good predictive power in distinguishing between high performers and relatively lower performers. Furthermore, we found that openness and pre-existing WM capacity to be the two most important factors in distinguishing between high and low performers. However, among low performers, openness and video game background were the most significant predictors of their learning persistence. In conclusion, it is possible to predict individual training performance using participant characteristics before training, which could inform the development of personalized interventions.

Video games and board games: Effects of playing practice on cognition

The worldwide popularity of playing practices has led to a growing research interest in games' impact on behavior and cognition. Many studies have already reported the benefits of both video games and board games for cognitive functions. However, these studies have mainly defined the term players according to a minimum play time or in connection to a specific game genre. No study has confronted the cognitive implications of video games and board games in the same statistical model. Thus, it remains unclear whether the cognitive benefits of play are due to play time or game type. To address this issue, in this study, we conducted an online experiment in which 496 participants completed six cognitive tests and a playing practice questionnaire. We examined the between the participants' overall video game and board game play times and cognitive abilities. The results demonstrated significant relations between overall play time and all cognitive functions. Importantly, video games significantly predicted mental flexibility, planning, visual working memory, visuospatial processing, fluid intelligence, and verbal working memory performance, while board games were not found to predict any cognitive performance. These findings suggest that video games affect cognitive functions in specific ways compared to board games. We encourage further investigation to consider players' individual differences through their play time and the specific features of the games they play.

Reaction time and working memory in middle-aged gamers and non-gamers

The purpose of this study was to explore whether asking middle-aged gamers and non-gamers about their video games habits will affect their performance of cognitive-motor tasks. One-hundred and twenty-one participants were randomly assigned to four groups: (a) gamers who were asked about their playing habits prior to the study, (b) gamers who were asked about their playing habits following the study, (c) non-gamers who were asked about their playing habits prior to the study, and (d) non-gamers who were asked about their playing habits following the study. The participants performed three reaction time (RT) tasks and a digit-span memory task. In a task-switching task, gamers had more correct responses when they answered the questionnaire before performing the task compared with after the task. For the non-gamers, the opposite occurred. We conclude that some performance measures of cognitive-motor tasks could have been affected by the timing of the completion of the questionnaire. This finding should be known to researchers as it may lead to biases gaming research.

Visuospatial working memory and attention control make the difference between experts, regulars and non-players of the videogame League of Legends

Video games have been postulated as an emerging field for studying the cognition-expertise relationship. Despite this, some methodological practices hinder scientific advance (e.g., heterogeneous samples, an ambiguous definition of expertise, etc.). League of Legends (LOL) is a massively played video game with a moderately defined structure that meets the requirements to overcome current study limitations. The aim of this study was to analyze cognitive differences among expert LOL players, regular LOL players, and non-videogame players. A sample of 80 participants was enrolled in three different groups of expertise. Participants were evaluated with behavioral tests of working memory, attention, cognitive flexibility, and inhibition. Kruskal-Wallis tests for group comparison showed that the experts performed significantly better than regular players and non-videogame players in the working memory test. Significant differences were also found between players and non-videogame players in the attention test. Methodological implications for future research in neuroscience and human-computer interaction are discussed.

Comparison of Reaction Time, Manual Dexterity, and Working Memory Levels of Adolescent Video Game Players and Non-Players

Objective: This study aims to examine differences between adolescent video game players and non-players in terms of their reaction time, manual dexterity, and working memory levels. Methods: The sample of the study, which has a comparative cross-sectional design type, consists of 432 adolescents at the grades between 9 and 12. Non-video game players, and video game players were subjected to simple visual and auditory reaction time tests, manual dexterity tests, matrix, and digit span working memory test. Results: Compared to non-video game players, video game players were found to have shorter visual and auditory reaction times. Also, several motor dexterity subtest skills of video game players were found to be lower, while working memory did not differ between the two groups. Conclusion: Our findings support the idea that playing video games seem to improve some aspects of cognitive and motor skills but reduce several other aspects.

Effects of exergame and video game training on cognitive and physical function in older adults: A randomized controlled trial

Few studies have simultaneously explored the training effects of exergame and video game. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of exergame and video game training on cognitive and physical function in healthy older adults. Eighty-four healthy older adults were randomly assigned to exergame training group, video game training group, and control group. Cognitive and physical function was measured before and after the training. Both training groups improved in verbal memory and aerobic endurance, but the training effects were greater in the exergame training group. The exergame training group also showed significant improvement in lower limb strength and balance. The current study provides evidence that exergame training, incorporating both cognitive engagement and physical activity, exerts greater benefits than cognitively engaging video game training alone. The findings shed lights into the future use of exergame in preventing cognitive and physical function decline in older adults.

Reaction time and working memory in gamers and non-gamers

The purpose of this pre-registered study was to examine whether asking gamers and non-gamers about their video game playing habits before or after they performed computerized cognitive-motor tasks affects their performance of those tasks. We recruited 187 participants from an online participants’ recruitment platform. Out of those participants, 131 matched our criteria as gamers or non-gamers. They were then divided to two subgroups, and performed a choice-RT task, a Simon task, an alternate task-switching task, and a digit span memory task either before or after answering a video-game playing habits questionnaire. The results showed that gamers who completed a video-games questionnaire before performing the tasks had faster reaction times (RTs) in the Simon task compared with gamers who answered the questionnaire after performing the tasks. In contrast, non-gamers who answered the questionnaire before the task had slower RTs in the Simon task and the alternate task-switching task compared with non-gamers who answered the questionnaire after performing the tasks. The results suggest that answering a video-games questionnaire before the start of a study can lead to a response expectancy effect—positive for gamers and negative for non-gamers. This may bias findings of studies examining video games and the performance of cognitive-motor tasks.

Do your eye movements reveal your performance on an IQ test? A study linking eye movements and socio-demographic information to fluid intelligence

Understanding the main factors contributing to individual differences in fluid intelligence is one of the main challenges of psychology. A vast body of research has evolved from the theoretical framework put forward by Cattell, who developed the Culture-Fair IQ Test (CFT 20-R) to assess fluid intelligence. In this work, we extend and complement the current state of research by analysing the differential and combined relationship between eye-movement patterns and socio-demographic information and the ability of a participant to correctly solve a CFT item. Our work shows that a participant’s eye movements while solving a CFT item contain discriminative information and can be used to predict whether the participant will succeed in solving the test item. Moreover, the information related to eye movements complements the information provided by socio-demographic data when it comes to success prediction. In combination, both types of information yield a significantly higher predictive performance than each information type individually. To better understand the contributions of features related to eye movements and socio-demographic information to predict a participant’s success in solving a CFT item, we employ state-of-the-art explainability techniques and show that, along with socio-demographic variables, eye-movement data. Especially the number of saccades and the mean pupil diameter, significantly increase the discriminating power. The eye-movement features are likely indicative of processing efficiency and invested mental effort. Beyond the specific contribution to research on how eye movements can serve as a means to uncover mechanisms underlying cognitive processes, the findings presented in this work pave the way for further in-depth investigations of factors predicting individual differences in fluid intelligence.

Psychophysiological, but Not Behavioral, Indicator of Working Memory Capacity Predicts Video Game Proficiency

Visual working memory (VWM) is the ability to actively maintain visual information over short periods of time and is strongly related to global fluid intelligence and overall cognitive ability. In our study, we used two indices of visual working memory capacity: the behavioral estimate of capacity (K) and contralateral delay activity (CDA) in order to check whether training in a Real-Time Strategy (RTS) video game StarCraft II can influence the VWM capacity measured by the change detection task. We also asked a question whether individual differences in behavioral and psychophysiological indices of VWM can predict the effectiveness of video game training. Sixty-two participants (non-players) were recruited to the experiment. Participants were randomly assigned to either experimental (Variable environment), active control (Fixed environment), and passive control groups. Experimental and active control groups differed in the type of training received. Training consisted of 30 h of playing the StarCraft II game. Participants took part in two EEG sessions (pre- and post-training) during which they performed the VWM task. Our results showed that working memory capacity (K calculated according to Pashler’s formula) increases after training in both experimental groups, but not in a control group. We have also found a correlation between average visual working memory capacity (calculated as K) and mean CDA amplitude no matter which group we are looking at. And, last but not least, we have found that we can predict the amount of improvement in the RTS video game by looking at the psychophysiological indices (CDA amplitude) recorded at baseline (before training), but only in the experimental group. We think that the strength of the psychophysiological indicator of VWM capacity might be a marker of the future success in video game acquisition.

Playing Analog Games Is Associated With Reduced Declines in Cognitive Function: A 68-Year Longitudinal Cohort Study

OBJECTIVES

Playing analog games may be associated with better cognitive function but, to date, these studies have not had extensive longitudinal follow-up. Our goal was to examine the association between playing games and change in cognitive function from age 11 to age 70, and from age 70 to 79.

METHOD

Participants were 1,091 nonclinical, independent, community-dwelling individuals all born in 1936 and residing in Scotland. General cognitive function was assessed at ages 11 and 70, and hierarchical domains were assessed at ages 70, 73, 76, and 79 using a comprehensive cognitive battery of 14 tests. Games playing behaviors were assessed at ages 70 and 76. All models controlled for early life cognitive function, education, social class, sex, activity levels, and health issues. All analyses were preregistered.

RESULTS

Higher frequency of playing games was associated with higher cognitive function at age 70, controlling for age 11 cognitive function, and the majority of this association could not be explained by control variables. Playing more games was also associated with less general cognitive decline from age 70 to age 79, and in particularly, less decline in memory ability. Increased games playing between 70 and 76 was associated with less decline in cognitive speed.

DISCUSSION

Playing games were associated with less relative cognitive decline from age 11 to age 70, and less cognitive decline from age 70 to 79. Controlling for age 11 cognitive function and other confounders, these findings suggest that playing more games is linked to reduced lifetime decline in cognitive function.

Action Real-Time Strategy Gaming Experience Related to Enhanced Capacity of Visual Working Memory

Action real-time strategy gaming (ARSG)—a major genre of action video gaming (AVG)—has both action and strategy elements. ARSG requires attention, visual working memory (VWM), sensorimotor skills, team cooperation, and strategy-making abilities, thus offering promising insights into the learning-induced plasticity. However, it is yet unknown whether the ARSG experience is related to the development of VWM capacity. Using both behavioral and event-related potential (ERP) measurements, this study tested whether ARSG experts had larger VWM capacity than non-experts in a change detection task. The behavioral results showed that ARSG experts had higher accuracy and larger VWM capacity than non-experts. In addition, the ERP results revealed that the difference wave of the contralateral delay activity (CDA) component (size 4–size 2) elicited by experts was significantly larger than that of non-experts, suggesting that the VWM capacity was higher in experts than in non-experts. Thus, the findings suggested that prolonged ARSG experience is correlative with the enhancement of VWM.

Time for a true display of skill: Top players in League of Legends have better executive control

Research into the effects of action video gaming on cognition has largely relied on self-reported action video game experience and extended video game training. Only a few studies have focused on participants' actual gaming skills. However, whether superior players and average players have different executive control is still not fully demonstrated. This study had top-ranking League of Legends players (global top 0.17%; N = 35) and average-ranking League of Legends players (N = 35) perform two cognitive tasks that aimed to measure three aspects of executive functioning: cognitive flexibility, interference control, and impulsive control. We controlled self-reported gaming experience, so that top-ranking players and average-ranking players had similar years of play and hours of play per week. We found that compared to a group of average players, top players showed smaller task-switching costs and smaller response-congruency effects in a Stroop-switching test. In a continuous performance test, top players indicated higher hit rates and lower false alarm rates as compared to average players. These findings suggest that top players have better cognitive flexibility and more accurate control of interference in the context of task-switching. Moreover, top players exhibit better impulsive control. The present study provides evidence that players' gaming skills rather than gaming experience are related to cognitive abilities, which may explain why previous studies on self-reported gaming experience and those assessing supervised training and cognitive performance have shown inconsistent results.