Alkylphenols in sediments of the Atlantic Rainforest south-west of São Paulo, Brazil

Multiresidue determination and predicted risk assessment of contaminants of emerging concern in marine sediments from the vicinities of submarine sewage outfalls

Submarine sewage outfalls (SSOs) are considered the main input source of contaminants of emerging concern continuously released in coastal areas, with the potential to cause adverse effects for aquatic organisms. This work presents the investigation of nine endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) and 26 pharmaceutically active chemicals (PhACs) in marine sediments within the vicinities of 7 SSOs along the São Paulo State Coast (Brazil). Method optimization for the multi-residue determination by GC-MS/MS and LC-MS/MS using QuEChERS extraction/clean-up are discussed. Results demonstrate the occurrence of EDCs in concentrations ranging from less than method quantification limits (MQL) to 72.5 ng g^-1 in sediments. All PhACs were <MQLs. Nonylphenol was the most ubiquitous compound and the diversity of EDCs increased with an increase in populations serviced by SSOs. The predicted environmental risk assessment considering measured environmental concentrations and ecotoxicity endpoints from literature suggest a high-risk potential in some of the investigated SSOs.

Alkylphenol ethoxylates and brominated flame retardants in water, fish (carp) and sediment samples from the Vaal River, South Africa

Alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEs) and brominated flame retardants (BFRs) are known to be bio-accumulative, persistent, and endocrine disruptors and can cause adverse health effects in animals and humans. In this study, environmental samples were collected from sites along the Vaal River, South Africa in order to determine the concentrations of APEs and BFRs in water, sediment, and fish samples. The highest concentrations of these pollutants were observed from discharge of the Rietspruit WWTW. Measurable levels of both APEs and BFRs were observed with APEs exhibiting higher concentrations than BFRs in all the matrices. The concentrations observed for APEs and BFRs were as follows: 1.00-3.85 μg/L APEs, 0.09-0.26 μg/L PBDEs, ND- 0.14 PBBs and 0.51-1.77 μg/L HBCD for water samples; 47-63 ng/g lipid APEs, 3.24-12.4 ng/g lipid PBB, 4.63-33 ng/g lipid PBDEs and 10-13 ng/g lipid HBCD for fish; and 40-184 ng/g (wet weight (ww)) APEs, 2.93-5.9 ng/g (ww) PBB, 10-24 ng/g (ww) PBDEs, and 15-52 ng/g (ww) HBCD for sediment samples. The concentrations of APEs and BFRs in water samples were found to be in the range with the results reported in the literature while the concentration in fish and sediment were lower than the concentrations reported in other studies.

Influence of the spray adjuvant on the toxicity effects of a glyphosate formulation

In the present study, the influence of the spray adjuvant on the toxicity effects of a glyphosate formulation was examined in HEp-2 cell line. We determined the median lethal concentration (LC50) of Atanor® (glyphosate formulation), Impacto® (spray adjuvant) and the mixture of both agrochemicals. We also compared the toxicities of the pesticides individually and in mixture and we analyzed the effects on oxidative balance from each treatment. Our results showed that all the agrochemicals assayed induce dose and time-dependent cytotoxicity and that the toxicity of Impacto® with Atanor® (mixture) was additive on HEp-2 cell line. All the agrochemicals assayed produced an increase in catalase activity and glutathione levels, while no effects were observed for superoxide dismutase and glutathione-S-transferase activities. We found an important increase in ROS production in cells treated with Atanor® and mixture. Besides, all the agrochemicals used triggered caspase 3/7 activation and hence induced apoptosis pathway in this cell line. In conclusion, our results demonstrated that the addition of adjuvant to glyphosate formulation increase the toxicity of the mixture in cell culture. Furthermore, cell culture exposed to agrochemical mixture showed an increased ROS production and antioxidant defenses.

Time-course recovery of estrogen-responsive genes of a cichlid fish exposed to waterborne octylphenol

The aim of this study was to describe the time-course of estrogen-induced gene expression, corresponding plasma protein detection and histological alterations after cessation of octylphenol (OP) exposure of Cichlasoma dimerus, to test differential responses of biomarkers suitable for environmental monitoring. Male fish were exposed to a nominal concentration of 150 μg/L OP for 28 days, and later transferred to OP-free water aquaria for 1, 3, 7, 14, 21 or 28 days. Blood and mucus samples were obtained in order to analyze vitellogenin (VTG) and zona pellucida (ZP) proteins by Western blot; liver samples were used for gene expression and to assess tissue damage and further recovery of all the analyzed endpoints. Partial sequences of C. dimerus VTG and Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase were obtained. Comparison with VTGs of several teleosts supports that the partial sequence obtained for C. dimerus belongs to VTGAb type. ZP and VTG expression was highly up-regulated by OP. Immunoreactive (ir-) bands of 62, 52 and 50 kDa for ZP and 140, 103, 75 and 64 kDa for VTG, were detected after 28 days of OP exposure in plasma and mucus samples. After transfer of treated fish to clean water, ZP ir-bands in plasma disappeared rapidly (day 3), while VTG ir-bands decreased gradually; no ir-bands were detected on day 28 of recovery. Similarly, ZPB transcripts abruptly returned to background levels (day 3), earlier than for ZPC (day 7) or VTG (day 14). Liver from OP treated fish showed tissue disarrangement, eccentric and euchromatic hepatocytes nuclei and intense perinuclear basophilia. After the recovery period, these changes were still evident though less pronounced, accounting for irreversibility of tissue damage or the requirement for a longer period of depuration. The present results confirm that for biochemical and molecular biomarkers, such as induction of female proteins in male fish exposed to OP, complete recovery is achieved after adequate time of depuration (28 days). Male ZPB expression reflects a recent exposure to estrogenic contaminants, while VTG may reveal past exposures. The combination of biomarkers with different temporal responses such as C. dimerus ZP and VTG provides a more comprehensive interpretation of pollution status.

Seasonal distribution, source investigation and vertical profile of phenolic endocrine disrupting compounds in Dianchi Lake, China

Phenolic endocrine disrupting compounds, including nonylphenol-di-ethoxylate (NP2EO), nonylphenol-mono-ethoxylate (NP1EO), 4-nonylphenol (4-NP), bisphenol A (BPA), 4-cumylphenol (4-CP) and 4-tert-octylphenol (4-t-OP), were investigated in water, surface sediment and sediment cores in Dianchi Lake to track their seasonal distributions, pollution sources and historical trends. The concentrations of NP2EO, NP1EO, 4-NP, BPA, 4-CP and 4-t-OP were up to 295.14, 448.48, 45.28, 530.33, 8.96 and 21.37 ng L(-1) in water, and up to 297.11, 809.63, 4.58, 166.87, 3.62 and 40.69 ng g(-1) dry weight in surface sediment, respectively. Except BPA in water, concentrations of all the other phenolic compounds in both of the matrices were higher in January than in July, 2011. The concentrations decreased significantly with an increase in distance from the sampling locations which were adjacent to the urban areas (Kunming City, Chenggong City and Jinning City). The pollution of phenolic EDCs came mainly from industry, agriculture and daily life. The relationships between the concentrations of target compounds and the six water quality parameters were evaluated. There were significant positive correlations between concentrations of phenolic compounds in water and in surface sediment. For sediment cores, three clearly separated maxima occurred in segments 0-5 cm (the late 2000s), 5-10 cm (the early and mid of 2000s) and 20-25 cm (the mid of 1980s), respectively. NP2EO, NP1EO and BPA were the three dominant compounds in the lake.

Assessment of the effects of a marine urban outfall discharge on caged mussels using chemical and biomarker analysis

To assess the presence of endocrine disruptors in treated marine outfall discharges and their possible effects, mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) were caged in the environmental mixing zone of the outfall of the Santander sanitation system and in one control area. After 30, 60 and 90 days, samples were collected to perform chemical analyses (metals, anionic surfactants, alkylphenols, bisphenol A, phthalates and estrogenic hormones), biomarkers of general stress (lysosomal membrane stability-LMS, histopathology) and biomarkers of endocrine disruption (vitellogenin-like proteins and gonad index). There were no significant differences between outfall and control sites on contaminant levels, except for 4-tert-octylphenol which was higher in the outfall site. Bacteriological counts were higher in the outfall area. No relevant differences in biomarkers were detected between treated and control mussels. A significant reduction in LMS occurred in both groups after 90 days caging, indicating a stress situation possibly related to caging or to post-spawning reproductive state.

Sequential ASE extraction of alkylphenols from sediments: Occurrence and environmental implications

The occurrence of alkylphenols (APs) including nonylphenol (NP) and octylphenol (OP) in the riverine sediments from the Pearl River Delta (PRD), South China was investigated and compared by Soxhlet extraction (S-APs) with dichloromethane and by sequential accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) (A-APs) with 1:6 toluene/methanol, respectively. Concentrations of OP and NP range from <1 to 463ng/g dw and 31-21,885ng/g dw, respectively, demonstrating that the contamination level of APs in the PRD is one of the highest in the world. Moreover, the A-APs contents are highly significantly related to and on average 1.5 times the S-APs contents. For sequential two ASE extractions, APs in the first extract accounts for 82.2-99.2% of their total contents in the sequential two extractions. The correlation analysis shows that S-APs and A-APs are both significantly associated with the contents of total organic carbon (TOC), suggesting that the variable extraction efficiency of these two methods is related to the presence of condensed organic matter in the sediments.

Early expression of zona pellucida proteins under octylphenol exposure in Cichlasoma dimerus (Perciformes, Cichlidae)

An increasing number of widely used industrial and agricultural chemicals are being found to cause endocrine disruption. In fishes, xenoestrogens can induce female proteins, and in some cases, the development of testis-ova, demonstrating feminization of males. In this study we analyzed the effect of an acute exposure of adult male Cichlasoma dimerus fish to estradiol (E(2)) and octylphenol (OP). E(2) and OP were injected at 10 and 50 μg/g body weight doses, respectively. After a single OP dose, liver was processed for RNA extraction at 1, 3, 12, 24, and 72 h. PCR was performed using cDNA and primers for egg coat or zona pellucida proteins (ZP). Genes encoding ZPB and ZPC isoforms were sequenced. E(2)-induced fish were sacrificed at 72 h. Using multiple OP or E(2) injections, blood and surface mucus were sampled on days 0, 3, 6, 9, and 13. On day 13 fish were sacrificed for liver and testis dissection. Histological examination of E(2) and OP-treated fish livers showed cellular disarray and intense cytoplasmatic basophilia within hepatocytes, probably due to increased mRNA synthesis, as well as hypertrophied euchromatic nuclei, and conspicuous nucleoli, indicative of augmented cell activity. An abnormal amount of sperm and immature germ cells within the testis lumen were seen in treated fish, suggesting reproductive impairment. Both plasma and mucus revealed the presence of ZP (and vitellogenin) at day 3 and thereafter with E(2) treatment, using Western and Dot blot techniques; OP effects were delayed in time. These results validate the analysis of mucus by Dot blot as an easy and rapid technique to address endocrine disruption caused by OP. Quantitative gene expression showed induction of liver ZPB and ZPC upon OP injection; muscle, brain, and intestine did not express any ZP. Both ZPs were induced at 1h post injection, but only ZPB expression was statistically significant. At 12h, both ZPs increased significantly, reaching the same levels of E(2)-challenged males after 72 h. Therefore, OP mimicked the action of E(2) with a prompt and strong xenoestrogenic effect, evidenced by the early response through mRNA and protein expression of ZP and the concomitant histological liver and testis alterations.

Recent advances in mass spectrometry analysis of phenolic endocrine disruptors and related compounds

This article reviews recent literature on current methodologies based on chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry to analyze phenolic compounds with endocrine-disrupting capabilities. For this review we chose alkylphenol ethoxylates, bisphenol A, bisphenol F, and their degradation products and halogenated derivatives, which are considered important environmental contaminants. Additionally, some related compounds such as bisphenol diglycidylethers were included. Growing attention has been paid to the mass spectrometric characterization of these compounds and the instrumentation and strategies used for their quantification and confirmation. The current use of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) methodologies with different mass spectrometers and ionization and monitoring modes is discussed. Practical aspects with regards to the use of these analytical techniques, such as derivatizing reagents in GC-MS, ion suppression in LC-MS, and the most problematic aspects of quantification, are included in the discussion.

Determination of phenolic and steroid endocrine disrupting compounds in environmental matrices

BACKGROUND, AIM AND SCOPE

Many pollutants have received significant attention due to their potential estrogenic effect and are classified as endocrine disrupting compounds (EDCs). EDCs comprise many classes of organic compounds. The development or optimization of analytical protocols for the simultaneous determination of EDCs in environmental samples is an analytical challenge because these compounds exhibit different physicochemical characteristics, they occur in the aquatic environment in relatively low concentrations and, furthermore, environmental samples are considered as complex matrices. The aim of this study is the development of analytical methods for the simultaneous determination of phenolic and steroid EDCs in aqueous and solid samples. The target compounds are 4-nonylphenol, 4-octylphenol, their ethoxylate oligomers (mono- and di-ethoxylates of nonylphenol and octylphenol), bisphenol A, the estrogens (estriol, estrone, 17beta-estradiol, 17alpha-estradiol) and the synthetic steroids (mestranol and 17alpha-ethynylestradiol).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Solid phase extraction employing Oasis HLB cartridges and different elution solvents was used for the recovery studies of the target compounds from various types of water samples (ultrapure water, artificial seawater, river water and seawater). Ultrasonic assisted extraction was applied for the recovery of the target EDCs from the solid samples. The recoveries were assessed using various solvents for the extraction and the elution of EDCs from different SPE cartridges used for clean up. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry after derivatization with N,O-bis(trimethylsilyl)-trifluoroacetamide was employed for the determination of these compounds.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The recovery rates of three elution solvents (methanol, acetone and ethylacetate) for the extraction of target EDCs from artificial seawater were assessed after preconcentration on SPE cartridges. Acetone showed better recoveries and was further tested for its extraction efficiency in different water types (river water, seawater). Ultrasonic assisted extraction was used for the recovery of target EDCs from solid matrices. Acetone, methanol, mixture of acetone-methanol (1:1) and ethylacetate were used as extraction solvents. Ethylacetate and the mixture of acetone-methanol (1:1) exhibited better extraction efficiencies. An additional clean up step was necessary for sediment samples. Different SPE cartridges were employed for clean up of the extracts (Oasis HLB, C18, Florisil, silica, combination of silica and alumina). Florisil cartridges were finally used. The proposed methods were further validated on the determination of target EDCs in field collected samples (river water, seawater, wastewater, total suspended solids and sediments) from the major area of Thessaloniki, Greece.

CONCLUSIONS

Efficient and accurate integrated methods for the simultaneous determination of alkylphenols (nonylphenol, octylphenol), their ethoxylate oligomers (mono- and di-ethoxylate of nonylphenol and octylphenol), bisphenol A and steroids (estriol, estrone, 17beta-estradiol, 17alpha-estradiol, mestranol and 17alpha-ethynylestradiol) in aqueous and solid samples were developed. The proposed methods were applied for the determination of the target compounds in representative environmental samples in the area of Thessaloniki, Northern Greece.

RECOMMENDATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

This study confirms the occurrence of selected EDCs in inland and marine waters in the area of Thessaloniki, Northern Greece. Since there is no previous data on the occurrence of the target EDCs in the major area, an extended survey is in progress to evaluate the occurrence and fate of these compounds.