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Gutierrez-Carazo E, Dowle J, Coulon F, Temple T, Ladyman M. Investigating residue dissolution of insensitive high explosives in two sandy soil types: A predictive modelling approach. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 904:166968. [PMID: 37704157 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023]
Abstract
The demand for munitions that are less likely to detonate accidentally has led to an increased use of Insensitive High Explosives (IHE), which contain substances like 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN) and 5-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-3-one (NTO). These substances have different properties compared to traditional explosives, and their potential environmental impact is not well understood. When these explosives are used in live-fire training exercises, their residues end up in the soil. It is important to determine how these residues dissolve and enter the soil. This study aimed to experimentally measure the rate at which an IHE formulation dissolves when exposed to rainwater with pH levels of 5.0 and 6.5, and to simulate how these residues dissolve and move through two different soil types. The dissolution rates were determined by conducting experiments in which IHE particles (30-60 mg) were exposed to water with varying pH levels and temperatures. The results showed that the dissolution rate of NTO did not vary with pH, while the dissolution rate of DNAN and RDX decreased with decreasing pH. Specifically, the dissolution rate of DNAN decreased from 18 ± 40 μg min-1 at pH 6.5 to 6 ± 4 μg min-1 at pH 5.0, while the dissolution rate of RDX decreased from 8 ± 4 to 3 ± 1 μg min-1. These findings were used to develop a stochastic model that successfully simulated the concentration of IHE in the leachate from soil columns over time. A sensitivity analysis revealed that while dissolution rates determined the amount of mass entering the soil, they did not significantly regulate the amount of mass that migrated through the soil and leached out of the soil columns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Encina Gutierrez-Carazo
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham SN6 7LA, UK
| | - James Dowle
- Golder, Sirius Building, The Clocktower, Edinburgh EH12 9LB, UK
| | - Frederic Coulon
- Cranfield University, School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield MK43 0AL, UK
| | - Tracey Temple
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham SN6 7LA, UK
| | - Melissa Ladyman
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham SN6 7LA, UK.
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2
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Rios-Valenciana EE, Menezes O, Romero J, Blubaum C, Krzmarzick MJ, Sierra-Alvarez R, Field JA. Elucidating the mechanisms associated with the anaerobic biotransformation of the emerging contaminant nitroguanidine. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 229:119496. [PMID: 36535085 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.119496] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Revised: 11/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Nitroguanidine (NQ) is a constituent of gas generators for automobile airbags, smokeless pyrotechnics, insecticides, propellants, and new insensitive munitions formulations applied by the military. During its manufacture and use, NQ can easily spread in soils, ground, and surface waters due to its high aqueous solubility. Very little is known about the microbial biotransformation of NQ. This study aimed to elucidate important mechanisms operating during NQ anaerobic biotransformation. To achieve this goal, we developed an anaerobic enrichment culture able to reduce NQ to nitrosoguanidine (NsoQ), which was further abiotically transformed to cyanamide. Effective electron donors for NQ biotransformation were lactate and, to a lesser extent, pyruvate. The results demonstrate that the enrichment process selected a sulfate-reducing culture that utilized lactate as its electron donor and sulfate as its electron acceptor while competing with NQ as an electron sink. A unique property of the culture was its requirement for exogenous nitrogen (e.g., from yeast extract or NH4Cl) for NQ biotransformation since NQ itself did not serve as a nitrogen source. The main phylogenetic groups associated with the NQ-reducing culture were sulfate-reducing and fermentative bacteria, namely Cupidesulfovibrio oxamicus (63.1% relative abundance), Dendrosporobacter spp. (12.0%), and Raoultibacter massiliens (10.9%). The molecular ecology results corresponded to measurable physiological properties of the most abundant members. The results establish the conditions for NQ anaerobic biotransformation and the microbial community associated with the process, improving our present comprehension of NQ environmental fate and assisting the development of NQ remediation strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika E Rios-Valenciana
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, The University of Arizona, P.O. Box 210011, Tucson, AZ 85721, United States
| | - Osmar Menezes
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, The University of Arizona, P.O. Box 210011, Tucson, AZ 85721, United States
| | - Jonathan Romero
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, The University of Arizona, P.O. Box 210011, Tucson, AZ 85721, United States
| | - Corey Blubaum
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, The University of Arizona, P.O. Box 210011, Tucson, AZ 85721, United States
| | - Mark J Krzmarzick
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK 74078, United States
| | - Reyes Sierra-Alvarez
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, The University of Arizona, P.O. Box 210011, Tucson, AZ 85721, United States
| | - Jim A Field
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, The University of Arizona, P.O. Box 210011, Tucson, AZ 85721, United States.
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Persico F, Temple T, Ladyman M, Gilroy‐Hirst W, Guiterrez‐Carazo E, Coulon F. Quantitative Environmental Assessment of Explosive Residues from the Detonation of Insensitive High Explosive Filled 155 mm Artillery Shell. PROPELLANTS EXPLOSIVES PYROTECHNICS 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/prep.202100220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Federica Persico
- Centre for Defence Chemistry Cranfield University Defence Academy of the United Kingdom Shrivenham SN6 7LA UK
| | - Tracey Temple
- Centre for Defence Chemistry Cranfield University Defence Academy of the United Kingdom Shrivenham SN6 7LA UK
| | - Melissa Ladyman
- Centre for Defence Chemistry Cranfield University Defence Academy of the United Kingdom Shrivenham SN6 7LA UK
| | - William Gilroy‐Hirst
- Centre for Defence Chemistry Cranfield University Defence Academy of the United Kingdom Shrivenham SN6 7LA UK
| | - Encina Guiterrez‐Carazo
- Centre for Defence Chemistry Cranfield University Defence Academy of the United Kingdom Shrivenham SN6 7LA UK
| | - Frederic Coulon
- School of Water Energy and Environment Cranfield University Cranfield MK43 0AL UK
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Qin C, Abrell L, Troya D, Hunt E, Taylor S, Dontsova K. Outdoor dissolution and photodegradation of insensitive munitions formulations IMX-101 and IMX-104: Photolytic transformation pathway and mechanism study. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 280:130672. [PMID: 33964749 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2021] [Revised: 04/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
New munition compounds have been developed to replace traditional explosives to prevent unintended detonations. However, insensitive munitions (IM) can leave large proportion of unexploded charge in the field, where it is subjected to photodegradation and dissolution in precipitation. The photolytic reactions occurring on the surfaces of IMX-101 and IMX-104 formulations and the subsequent fate of photolytic products in the environment were thoroughly investigated. The constituents of IMX-101 and IMX-104 formulations dissolve sequentially under rainfall in the order of aqueous solubility: 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO) > nitroguanidine (NQ) > 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN) > 1,3,5-hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX). A linear relationship between DNAN dissolution and rainwater volume was observed (r2: 0.86-0.99). It was estimated that it would take 16-228 years to completely dissolve these formulation particles under natural environmental conditions in Oracle, AZ. We used LC/MS/MS and GC/MS to examine the dissolution samples from IMX-101 and 104 particles exposed to rainfall and sunlight and found six DNAN photo-transformation products including 2-methoxy-5-nitrophenol, 4-methoxy-3-nitrophenol, 4-methoxy-3-nitroaniline, 2-methoxy-5-nitroaniline, 2,4-dinitrophenol, and methoxy-dinitrophenol, which are in good agreement with computational modeling results of bond strengths. The main DNAN photodegradation pathways are therefore proposed. Predicted eco-toxicity values suggested that the parent compound DNAN, methoxy-nitrophenols, methoxy-nitroanilines and the other two products (2,4-dinitrophenol and methoxy-dinitrophenol) would be harmful to fish and daphnid. Our study provides improved insight about the rain dissolution and photochemical behavior of IM formulations under natural conditions, which helps to form target-oriented strategies to mitigate explosive contamination in military training sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Qin
- College of Resources and Environmental Sciences, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China; Biosphere 2, University of Arizona, Oracle, AZ, 85721-0158, United States.
| | - Leif Abrell
- Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721-0038, United States
| | - Diego Troya
- Department of Chemistry, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States
| | - Edward Hunt
- Biosphere 2, University of Arizona, Oracle, AZ, 85721-0158, United States
| | - Susan Taylor
- U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Hanover, NH, 03755-1290, United States
| | - Katerina Dontsova
- Biosphere 2, University of Arizona, Oracle, AZ, 85721-0158, United States; Department of Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, 85721-0038, United States.
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5
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A review of treatment methods for insensitive high explosive contaminated wastewater. Heliyon 2021; 7:e07438. [PMID: 34401549 PMCID: PMC8353291 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Revised: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Insensitive high explosive materials (IHE) such as 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO) and 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN) are increasingly being used in formulations of insensitive munitions alongside 1,3,5-trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX). Load, assembly and packing (LAP) facilities that process munitions produce wastewater contaminated with IHE which must be treated before discharge. Some facilities can produce as much as 90,000 L of contaminated wastewater per day. In this review, methods of wastewater treatment are assessed in terms of their strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats for their use in production of IHE munitions including their limitations and how they could be applied to industrial scale LAP facilities. Adsorption is identified as a suitable treatment method, however the high solubility of NTO, up to 16.6 g.L−1 which is 180 times higher that of TNT, has the potential to exceed the adsorptive capacity of carbon adsorption systems. The key properties of the adsorptive materials along the selection of adsorption models are highlighted and recommendations on how the limitations of carbon adsorption systems for IHE wastewater can be overcome are offered, including the modification of carbons to increase adsorptive capacity or reduce costs.
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Fawcett-Hirst W, Temple TJ, Ladyman MK, Coulon F. Adsorption behaviour of 1,3,5-trinitroperhydro-1,3,5-triazine, 2,4-dinitroanisole and 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one on commercial activated carbons. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 255:126848. [PMID: 32388255 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Insensitive high explosives are increasingly being used to replace more sensitive formulations, however large quantities of environmentally hazardous wastewater are generated from loading, assembling and packing processes. Currently, there is limited literature regarding the treatment of wastewater contaminated with these hazardous insensitive high explosive materials such as 1,3,5-trinitroperhydro- 1,3,5-triazine (RDX), 2,4-dinitoranisole (DNAN) and 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO). The preferred method of explosive wastewater treatment is adsorption by activated carbon, usually through treatment columns or fluidised beds that are simple to operate and cost effective. The aim of this research was to assess whether commercially available activated carbons would be suitable and economically viable to treat explosive wastewater containing RDX, DNAN and NTO. Bottle point tests were used to determine adsorption capacity and adsorption kinetics for the individual insensitive high explosives with three different activated carbons. Equilibrium data were fitted to the Langmuir, Freundlich and Temkin isotherms to determine the mechanisms of adsorption. Six hour bottle point tests for a mixture of the three insensitive high explosive constituents were used to consider possible preferential adsorption. As expected, RDX and DNAN were adsorbed at concentrations up to 40 mg.L-1 and 150 mg.L-1 respectively by the activated carbons tested, demonstrating the viability of treatment by adsorption. However, at the high concentrations of NTO expected in wastewater (1400 mg.L-1) activated carbons were rapidly saturated, suggesting that treatment of NTO contaminated wastewater would require prohibitively large quantities of activated carbon compared to RDX and DNAN.
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Affiliation(s)
- William Fawcett-Hirst
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, UK
| | - Tracey J Temple
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, UK.
| | - Melissa K Ladyman
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham, SN6 8LA, UK
| | - Frederic Coulon
- Cranfield University, School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield, MK43 0AL, UK
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Temple T, Cipullo S, Galante E, Ladyman M, Mai N, Parry T, Coulon F. The effect of soil type on the extraction of insensitive high explosive constituents using four conventional methods. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 668:184-192. [PMID: 30852196 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2018] [Revised: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 02/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Explosive contamination is commonly found at military and manufacturing sites (Hewitt et al., 2005; Clausen et al., 2004; Walsh et al., 2013). Under current environmental legislation the extent of the contamination must be characterized by soil sampling and subsequent separation of the explosive contaminants from the soil matrix by extraction to enable chemical analysis and quantification (Dean, 2009). It is essential that the extraction method can consistently recover explosive residue from a variety of soil types i.e. all materials that have not degraded or irreversibly bound to the matrix, so that any resultant risk is not underestimated. In this study, five different soil types with a range of organic content, particle size and pH, were spiked with a mixture of RDX, DNAN, NQ and NTO at 50 mg/kg and were extracted using one of four one-step extraction methods: stirring, shaking, sonication, and accelerated solvent extraction (ASE). Analysis of the extraction efficiencies of the four methods found that they were broadly successful for the extraction of all IHE constituents from all five soils (an average of 84% ± 14% recovery across 80 extractions). However, soils with high organic content (Total Organic Content (TOC) ≥ 2%) were found to significantly affect extraction efficiency and reproducibility. NTO and DNAN were the least consistent in extraction efficiency with poorest recovery of NTO as low as 37% ± 2%. Of the four tested methods shaking was found to be the most reproducible, though less efficient than stirring (64%-91%). ASE was found to have the most variable results for extraction of IHE constituents suggesting that ASE was the most affected by the different soil types. Therefore, it is recommended that the efficiency and reproducibility of the selected extraction method should be validated by extracting known concentrations of the IHE from the soil of interest and that any required correction factors are reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Temple
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham SN6 7LA, UK.
| | - S Cipullo
- Cranfield University, School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield, MK43 0AL, UK
| | - E Galante
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham SN6 7LA, UK
| | - M Ladyman
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham SN6 7LA, UK
| | - N Mai
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham SN6 7LA, UK
| | - T Parry
- Cranfield University, Centre for Defence Chemistry, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Shrivenham SN6 7LA, UK
| | - F Coulon
- Cranfield University, School of Water, Energy and Environment, Cranfield, MK43 0AL, UK
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Arthur JD, Mark NW, Taylor S, Šimůnek J, Brusseau ML, Dontsova KM. Dissolution and transport of insensitive munitions formulations IMX-101 and IMX-104 in saturated soil columns. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 624:758-768. [PMID: 29272845 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2017] [Revised: 11/11/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Military training exercises can result in deposition of energetic residues on range soils, which ultimately can contaminate groundwater with munitions constituents. Column experiments followed by HYDRUS-1D modeling were conducted to evaluate dissolution and transport of energetic constituents from the new insensitive munitions (IM) formulations IMX-101, a mixture of 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO), nitroguanidine (NQ), and 2, 4-dinitroanisole (DNAN), and IMX-104, a mixture of NTO, 1,3,5-hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX) and DNAN. NTO and DNAN are emerging contaminants associated with the development of insensitive munitions as replacements for traditional munitions. Flow interruption experiments were performed to investigate dissolution kinetics and sorption non-equilibrium between soil and solution phases. The results indicated that insensitive munitions compounds dissolved in order of their aqueous solubility, consistent with prior dissolution studies conducted in the absence of soil. Initial elution of the high concentration pulse of highly soluble NTO and NQ was followed by lower concentrations, while DNAN had generally lower and more constant concentrations in leachate. The sorption of NTO and NQ was low, while RDX, 1,3,5,7-octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitrotetrazocine (HMX, an impurity in technical grade RDX), and DNAN all exhibited appreciable sorption. DNAN transformation was observed, with formation of amino-reduction products 2-ANAN (2-amino-4-nitroanisole) and 4-ANAN (4-amino-2-nitroanisole). HYDRUS-1D model, incorporating one-dimensional advective-dispersive transport with particle dissolution and first-order solute transformation was used to simulate the measured breakthrough curves. Optimized dissolution parameters varied widely but were correlated between compounds in the same formulation. Determined adsorption coefficients generally agreed with values determined from batch and column studies conducted with pure NTO and DNAN, while mass-loss rate coefficients were in better agreement with ones from batch than column studies possibly due to suppression of microbial transformation during elution of high concentrations of explosives. Even in the low organic matter soils selected in this study DNAN experienced significant retardation and transformation, indicating potential for its natural attenuation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer D Arthur
- Soil, Water and Environmental Science Department, University of Arizona, United States
| | - Noah W Mark
- Soil, Water and Environmental Science Department, University of Arizona, United States
| | - Susan Taylor
- U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, United States
| | - Jiří Šimůnek
- Department of Environmental Sciences, University of California, Riverside, United States
| | - Mark L Brusseau
- Soil, Water and Environmental Science Department, University of Arizona, United States; Department of Hydrology & Atmospheric Sciences, University of Arizona, United States
| | - Katerina M Dontsova
- Soil, Water and Environmental Science Department, University of Arizona, United States; Biosphere 2, University of Arizona, United States.
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Kadoya WM, Sierra-Alvarez R, Wong S, Abrell L, Mash EA, Field JA. Evidence of anaerobic coupling reactions between reduced intermediates of 4-nitroanisole. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 195:372-380. [PMID: 29274576 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.12.083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Revised: 12/10/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Nitroaromatic compounds are widely used in agricultural pesticides, pharmaceuticals, military explosives, and other applications. They enter the environment via manufacturing and municipal wastewater discharges and releases from agricultural and military operations. Because of their ubiquity and toxicity, they are considered an important class of environmental contaminants. Nitroaromatics are known to undergo reductive transformation to aromatic amines, and under aerobic conditions they are susceptible to coupling reactions which may lead to their irreversible incorporation into soil organic matter. However, there is also evidence of coupling reactions in the absence of oxygen between reduced intermediates of the insensitive munitions compound 2,4-dinitroanisole, leading to the formation of azo dimers. The formation of such products is a concern since they may be more toxic than the original nitroaromatic compounds. The objective of this research is to provide evidence of the anaerobic formation of azo coupling products. 4-Nitroanisole was used as a model compound and was spiked into incubations containing anaerobic granular sludge with H2 as the electron donor. Using liquid chromatography, UV-Vis spectroscopy, and mass spectrometry, the formation of the azo dimer 4,4'-dimethoxyazobenzene was confirmed. However, due to the instability of the azo bond under the reducing conditions of our incubations, the azo dimer did not accumulate. Consequently, 4-aminoanisole was the major product formed in our experiment. Other minor suspected coupling products were also detected in our incubations. The results provide clear evidence for the temporal formation of at least one azo dimer in the anaerobic reduction of a model nitroaromatic compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Warren M Kadoya
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Reyes Sierra-Alvarez
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Stanley Wong
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Leif Abrell
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; Department of Soil, Water and Environmental Science, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Eugene A Mash
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA
| | - Jim A Field
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA.
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10
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Walsh MR, Temple T, Bigl MF, Tshabalala SF, Mai N, Ladyman M. Investigation of Energetic Particle Distribution from High-Order Detonations of Munitions. PROPELLANTS EXPLOSIVES PYROTECHNICS 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/prep.201700089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael R. Walsh
- US Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory; 72 Lyme Road Hanover, New Hampshire 03755 USA
| | - Tracey Temple
- Center for Defence Chemistry; Cranfield University; Defence Academy of the UK; SN6 8LA
| | - Matthew F. Bigl
- US Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory; 72 Lyme Road Hanover, New Hampshire 03755 USA
| | - Seipati F. Tshabalala
- Center for Defence Chemistry; Cranfield University; Defence Academy of the UK; SN6 8LA
| | - Nathalie Mai
- Center for Defence Chemistry; Cranfield University; Defence Academy of the UK; SN6 8LA
| | - Melissa Ladyman
- Center for Defence Chemistry; Cranfield University; Defence Academy of the UK; SN6 8LA
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11
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Arthur JD, Mark NW, Taylor S, Šimunek J, Brusseau ML, Dontsova KM. Batch soil adsorption and column transport studies of 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN) in soils. JOURNAL OF CONTAMINANT HYDROLOGY 2017; 199:14-23. [PMID: 28285171 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconhyd.2017.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2016] [Revised: 02/02/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The explosive 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) is currently a main ingredient in munitions; however the compound has failed to meet the new sensitivity requirements. The replacement compound being tested is 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN). DNAN is less sensitive to shock, high temperatures, and has good detonation characteristics. However, DNAN is more soluble than TNT, which can influence transport and fate behavior and thus bioavailability and human exposure potential. The objective of this study was to investigate the environmental fate and transport of DNAN in soil, with specific focus on sorption processes. Batch and column experiments were conducted using soils collected from military installations located across the United States. The soils were characterized for pH, electrical conductivity, specific surface area, cation exchange capacity, and organic carbon content. In the batch rate studies, change in DNAN concentration with time was evaluated using the first order equation, while adsorption isotherms were fitted using linear and Freundlich equations. Solution mass-loss rate coefficients ranged between 0.0002h-1 and 0.0068h-1. DNAN was strongly adsorbed by soils with linear adsorption coefficients ranging between 0.6 and 6.3Lg-1, and Freundlich coefficients between 1.3 and 34mg1-nLnkg-1. Both linear and Freundlich adsorption coefficients were positively correlated with the amount of organic carbon and cation exchange capacity of the soil, indicating that similar to TNT, organic matter and clay minerals may influence adsorption of DNAN. The results of the miscible-displacement column experiments confirmed the impact of sorption on retardation of DNAN during transport. It was also shown that under flow conditions DNAN transforms readily with formation of amino transformation products, 2-ANAN and 4-ANAN. The magnitudes of retardation and transformation observed in this study result in significant attenuation potential for DNAN, which would be anticipated to contribute to a reduced risk for contamination of ground water from soil residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer D Arthur
- Soil, Water and Environmental Science Department, University of Arizona, United States.
| | - Noah W Mark
- Soil, Water and Environmental Science Department, University of Arizona, United States
| | - Susan Taylor
- U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, United States
| | - J Šimunek
- University of California, Riverside, United States
| | - M L Brusseau
- Soil, Water and Environmental Science Department, University of Arizona, United States; Hydrology and Atmospheric Sciences Department, University of Arizona, United States
| | - Katerina M Dontsova
- Soil, Water and Environmental Science Department, University of Arizona, United States; Biosphere 2, University of Arizona, United States
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12
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Mark N, Arthur J, Dontsova K, Brusseau M, Taylor S, Šimůnek J. Column transport studies of 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO) in soils. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 171:427-434. [PMID: 28033573 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.12.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2016] [Revised: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Development of the new, insensitive, energetic compound, NTO (3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one), creates need for the data on NTO's fate and transport to predict its behavior in the environment and potential for groundwater contamination. To measure the transport of NTO in soils, we conducted miscible-displacement experiments under steady state and interrupted flow conditions using eight soils having varying physical and geochemical properties. The breakthrough curve (BTC) data were analyzed using temporal moment analysis and simulated using HYDRUS-1D to determine transport parameters and better understand the mechanisms of sorption and transformation. Parameters determined from the miscible-displacement study were compared to results obtained from batch experiments conducted for the same soils, and examined in relation to soil properties. Column NTO linear adsorption coefficients (Kd) were low and correlated well (P = 0.000049) with measurements from the batch studies. NTO transformation rate constants increased and NTO recovery decreased with increase in soil organic carbon (OC) content. Autoclaved soils had slower transformation rates and greater NTO recoveries indicating that microorganisms play a role in NTO transformation. In addition, the transformation rate increased with time in soils with higher OC. Monod-type kinetics was implemented in HYDRUS-1D to simulate the observed increase in transformation rate with time. We think this phenomenon is due to bacterial growth. Results indicate very low adsorption of NTO in a range of soils, but natural attenuation through transformation that, depending on soil OC content and hydraulic residence time, could result in complete removal of NTO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah Mark
- Dept. of Soil, Water, and Environmental Science, Univ. of Arizona, 1177 E. Fourth St., PO Box 210038, Shantz Bldg. #38, Tucson, AZ 85721-0038, USA
| | - Jennifer Arthur
- Dept. of Soil, Water, and Environmental Science, Univ. of Arizona, 1177 E. Fourth St., PO Box 210038, Shantz Bldg. #38, Tucson, AZ 85721-0038, USA
| | - Katerina Dontsova
- Dept. of Soil, Water, and Environmental Science, Univ. of Arizona, 1177 E. Fourth St., PO Box 210038, Shantz Bldg. #38, Tucson, AZ 85721-0038, USA; Biosphere 2, University of Arizona, Marshall Building, Room 523, 845 N. Park Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85721-0158, USA.
| | - Mark Brusseau
- Dept. of Soil, Water, and Environmental Science, Univ. of Arizona, 1177 E. Fourth St., PO Box 210038, Shantz Bldg. #38, Tucson, AZ 85721-0038, USA
| | - Susan Taylor
- Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, 72 Lyme Road, Hanover, NH 03755-1290, USA
| | - Jiří Šimůnek
- Dept of Environmental Sciences, Univ. of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
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Taylor S, Walsh ME, Becher JB, Ringelberg DB, Mannes PZ, Gribble GW. Photo-degradation of 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN): An emerging munitions compound. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 167:193-203. [PMID: 27721130 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.09.142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2016] [Revised: 09/26/2016] [Accepted: 09/27/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The US military is developing insensitive munitions (IM) that are less sensitive to shock and high temperatures to minimize unintentional detonations. DNAN (2,4-dinitroanisole) is one of the main ingredients of these IM formulations. During live-fire training, chunks of IM formulations are scattered by partial detonations and, once on the soil, they weather and dissolve. DNAN changes color when exposed to sunlight suggesting that it photodegrades into other compounds. We investigated the photo-degradation of DNAN both as a pure solid and as part of solid IM formulations, IMX101, IMX104 and PAX21. The concentrations of degradation products found were small, <1%, relative to DNAN concentrations. We saw transient peaks in the chromatograms indicating intermediate, unstable products but we consistently found methoxy nitrophenols and methoxy nitroanilines. We also found one unknown in most of the samples and other unknowns less frequently.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Taylor
- Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, USA.
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Taylor S, Dontsova K, Walsh M. Insensitive Munitions Formulations: Their Dissolution and Fate in Soils. CHALLENGES AND ADVANCES IN COMPUTATIONAL CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-59208-4_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Mark N, Arthur J, Dontsova K, Brusseau M, Taylor S. Adsorption and attenuation behavior of 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO) in eleven soils. CHEMOSPHERE 2016; 144:1249-1255. [PMID: 26473550 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.09.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2015] [Revised: 09/16/2015] [Accepted: 09/30/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
NTO (3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one) is one of the new explosive compounds used in insensitive munitions (IM) developed to replace traditional explosives, TNT and RDX. Data on NTO fate and transport is needed to determine its environmental behavior and potential for groundwater contamination. We conducted a series of kinetic and equilibrium batch experiments to characterize the fate of NTO in soils and the effect of soil geochemical properties on NTO-soil interactions. A set of experiments was also conducted using sterilized soils to evaluate the contribution of biodegradation to NTO attenuation. Measured pH values for NTO solutions decreased from 5.98 ± 0.13 to 3.50 ± 0.06 with increase in NTO concentration from 0.78 to 100 mg L(-1). Conversely, the pH of soil suspensions was not significantly affected by NTO in this concentration range. NTO experienced minimal adsorption, with measured adsorption coefficients being less than 1 cm(3) g(-1) for all studied soils. There was a highly significant inverse relationship between the measured NTO adsorption coefficients and soil pH (P = 0.00011), indicating the role of NTO and soil charge in adsorption processes. In kinetic experiments, 1st order transformation rate constant estimates ranged between 0.0004 h(-1) and 0.0142 h(-1) (equivalent to half-lives of 72 and 2 d, respectively), and correlated positively with organic carbon in the soil. Total attenuation of NTO was higher in untreated versus sterilized samples, suggesting that NTO was being biodegraded. The information presented herein can be used to help evaluate NTO potential for natural attenuation in soils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah Mark
- Dept. of Soil, Water, and Environmental Science, University of Arizona, 1177 E. Fourth St. PO Box 210038, Shantz Bldg. #38, Tucson, AZ 85721-0038, USA
| | - Jennifer Arthur
- Dept. of Soil, Water, and Environmental Science, University of Arizona, 1177 E. Fourth St. PO Box 210038, Shantz Bldg. #38, Tucson, AZ 85721-0038, USA
| | - Katerina Dontsova
- Dept. of Soil, Water, and Environmental Science, University of Arizona, 1177 E. Fourth St. PO Box 210038, Shantz Bldg. #38, Tucson, AZ 85721-0038, USA; Biosphere 2, University of Arizona, Marshall Building, Room 523, 845 N, Park Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85721-0158, USA.
| | - Mark Brusseau
- Dept. of Soil, Water, and Environmental Science, University of Arizona, 1177 E. Fourth St. PO Box 210038, Shantz Bldg. #38, Tucson, AZ 85721-0038, USA
| | - Susan Taylor
- Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, 72 Lyme Road, Hanover, NH 03755-1290, USA
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Taylor S, Dontsova K, Walsh ME, Walsh MR. Outdoor dissolution of detonation residues of three insensitive munitions (IM) formulations. CHEMOSPHERE 2015; 134:250-256. [PMID: 25966455 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2015.04.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2015] [Revised: 04/16/2015] [Accepted: 04/17/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
We seek to understand the environmental fate of three new insensitive munitions, explosive formulations developed to reduce the incidence of unintended detonations. To this end, we measured the size distribution of residues from low order detonations of IMX 101, IMX 104, and PAX 21-filled munitions and are studying how these three formulations weather and dissolve outdoors. The largest pieces collected from the detonations were centimeter-sized and we studied 12 of these in the outdoors test. We found that the particles break easily and that the dissolution of 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN) is quasi-linear as a function of water volume. DNAN is the matrix and the least soluble major constituent of the three formulations. We used DNAN's linear dissolution rate to estimate the life span of the pieces. Particles ranging in mass from 0.3 to 3.5 g will completely dissolve in 3-21 years given 100 cm y(-1) precipitation rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Taylor
- Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, 72 Lyme Road, Hanover, NH 03755-1290, USA.
| | - Katerina Dontsova
- Biosphere 2, University of Arizona, 845 N. Park Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85721-0158, USA
| | - Marianne E Walsh
- Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, 72 Lyme Road, Hanover, NH 03755-1290, USA
| | - Michael R Walsh
- Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, 72 Lyme Road, Hanover, NH 03755-1290, USA
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Taylor S, Park E, Bullion K, Dontsova K. Dissolution of three insensitive munitions formulations. CHEMOSPHERE 2015; 119:342-348. [PMID: 25043961 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.06.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2014] [Revised: 06/12/2014] [Accepted: 06/15/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The US military fires live munitions during training. To save soldiers lives both during training and war, the military is developing insensitive munitions (IM) that minimize unintentional detonations. Some of the compounds in the IM formulation are, however, very soluble in water, raising environmental concerns about their fate and transport. We measured the dissolution of three of these IM formulations, IMX101, IMX104 and PAX21 using laboratory drip tests and studied the accompanying changes in particle structure using micro computed tomography. Our laboratory drip tests mimic conditions on training ranges, where spatially isolated particles of explosives scattered by partial detonations are dissolved by rainfall. We found that the constituents of these IM formulations dissolve sequentially and in the order predicted by their aqueous solubility. The order of magnitude differences in solubility among their constituents produce water solutions whose compositions and concentrations vary with time. For IMX101 and IMX104, that contain 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO), the solutions also vary in pH. The good mass balances measured for the drip tests indicate that the formulations are not being photo-or bio-transformed under laboratory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan Taylor
- Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, 72 Lyme Road, Hanover, NH 03755-1290, USA.
| | - Eileen Park
- Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, 72 Lyme Road, Hanover, NH 03755-1290, USA
| | - Katherine Bullion
- Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, 72 Lyme Road, Hanover, NH 03755-1290, USA
| | - Katerina Dontsova
- Biosphere 2 Earthscience, University of Arizona, 845 N. Park Avenue, Tucson, AZ 85721-0158, USA
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Richard T, Weidhaas J. Dissolution, sorption, and phytoremediation of IMX-101 explosive formulation constituents: 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN), 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO), and nitroguanidine. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2014; 280:561-9. [PMID: 25212590 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2014.08.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2014] [Revised: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 08/23/2014] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The insensitive munition, IMX-101 approved for use in the USA, contains 2,4-dinitroanisole (DNAN), 3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO), and nitroguanidine (NQ) and is designed to be less sensitive to shock and sympathetic detonation. Given the estimated future use of IMX-101, an understanding of IMX-101 constituent attenuation mechanisms on testing and training ranges is needed. Studies were conducted to determine (1) the rates of IMX-101 fragment dissolution during simulated rainfall, (2) DNAN and NTO soil sorption coefficients, (3) ability of grasses to germinate in and phytoremediate IMX-101 contaminated soil, and (4) effect of the addition of IMX-101 degrading enrichment cultures on phytoremediation. The IMX-101 particles were found to dissolve slowly under simulated rainfall conditions with NQ and NTO dissolving first, leaving DNAN crystals. DNAN and NTO sorption to soils fit Freundlich isotherms and limited desorption was observed. DNAN and NQ were shown to be taken up into the roots and shoots of a mixture of big bluestem grass (Andropogon gerardii), Nash Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), and switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) during phytoremediation of soils contaminated with up to 50 mg kg(-1) IMX-101. Complete degradation of IMX-101 to below detection limits occurred over 225 days. The addition of an IMX-101 degrading enrichment culture to the treatments significantly increased the root and shoot mass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Richard
- West Virginia University, Civil and Environmental Engineering, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Jennifer Weidhaas
- West Virginia University, Civil and Environmental Engineering, PO Box 6103, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.
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