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Gilfillan CB, Hebeisen M, Rufer N, Speiser DE. Constant regulation for stable CD8 T-cell functional avidity and its possible implications for cancer immunotherapy. Eur J Immunol 2021; 51:1348-1360. [PMID: 33704770 PMCID: PMC8252569 DOI: 10.1002/eji.202049016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The functional avidity (FA) of cytotoxic CD8 T cells impacts strongly on their functional capabilities and correlates with protection from infection and cancer. FA depends on TCR affinity, downstream signaling strength, and TCR affinity-independent parameters of the immune synapse, such as costimulatory and inhibitory receptors. The functional impact of coreceptors on FA remains to be fully elucidated. Despite its importance, FA is infrequently assessed and incompletely understood. There is currently no consensus as to whether FA can be enhanced by optimized vaccine dose or boosting schedule. Recent findings suggest that FA is remarkably stable in vivo, possibly due to continued signaling modulation of critical receptors in the immune synapse. In this review, we provide an overview of the current knowledge and hypothesize that in vivo, codominant T cells constantly "equalize" their FA for similar function. We present a new model of constant FA regulation, and discuss practical implications for T-cell-based cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Connie B Gilfillan
- Department of Oncology, University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Michael Hebeisen
- Department of Oncology, University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nathalie Rufer
- Department of Oncology, University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Daniel E Speiser
- Department of Oncology, University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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2
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Biomaterials for Immunoengineering. Biomater Sci 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-816137-1.00076-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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3
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Neek M, Tucker JA, Kim TI, Molino NM, Nelson EL, Wang SW. Co-delivery of human cancer-testis antigens with adjuvant in protein nanoparticles induces higher cell-mediated immune responses. Biomaterials 2017; 156:194-203. [PMID: 29202325 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2017.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2017] [Revised: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Nanoparticles have attracted considerable interest as cancer vaccine delivery vehicles for inducing sufficient CD8+ T cell-mediated immune responses to overcome the low immunogenicity of the tumor microenvironment. Our studies described here are the first to examine the effects of clinically-tested human cancer-testis (CT) peptide epitopes within a synthetic nanoparticle. Specifically, we focused on two significant clinical CT targets, the HLA-A2 restricted epitopes of NY-ESO-1 and MAGE-A3, using a viral-mimetic packaging strategy. Our data shows that simultaneous delivery of a NY-ESO-1 epitope (SLLMWITQV) and CpG using the E2 subunit assembly of pyruvate dehydrogenase (E2 nanoparticle), resulted in a 25-fold increase in specific IFN-γ secretion in HLA-A2 transgenic mice. This translated to a 15-fold increase in lytic activity toward target cancer cells expressing the antigen. Immunization with a MAGE-A3 epitope (FLWGPRALV) delivered with CpG in E2 nanoparticles yielded an increase in specific IFN-γ secretion and cell lysis by 6-fold and 9-fold, respectively. Furthermore, combined delivery of NY-ESO-1 and MAGE-A3 antigens in E2 nanoparticles yielded an additive effect that increased lytic activity towards cells bearing NY-ESO-1+ and MAGE-A3+. Our investigations demonstrate that formulation of CT antigens within a nanoparticle can significantly enhance antigen-specific cell-mediated responses, and the combination of the two antigens in a vaccine can preserve the increased individual responses that are observed for each antigen alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Medea Neek
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Jo Anne Tucker
- Department of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Tae Il Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Nicholas M Molino
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Edward L Nelson
- Department of Medicine, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA; Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA; Institute for Immunology, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA
| | - Szu-Wen Wang
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA; Chao Family Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
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Improving Multi-Epitope Long Peptide Vaccine Potency by Using a Strategy that Enhances CD4+ T Help in BALB/c Mice. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0142563. [PMID: 26556756 PMCID: PMC4640540 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0142563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2015] [Accepted: 10/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Peptide-based vaccines are attractive approaches for cancer immunotherapy; but the success of these vaccines in clinical trials have been limited. Our goal is to improve immune responses and anti-tumor effects against a synthetic, multi-epitope, long peptide from rat Her2/neu (rHer2/neu) using the help of CD4+ T cells and appropriate adjuvant in a mouse tumor model. Female BALB/c mice were vaccinated with P5+435 multi-epitope long peptide that presents epitopes for cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) in combination with a universal Pan DR epitope (PADRE) or CpG-oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG-ODNs) as a Toll-like receptor agonist adjuvant. The results show that vaccination with the multi-epitope long peptide in combination with the PADRE peptide and CpG-ODN induced expansion of subpopulations of CD4+ and CD8+ cells producing IFN-γ, the average tumor size in the vaccinated mice was less than that of the other groups, and tumor growth was inhibited in 40% of the mice in the vaccinated group. The mean survival time was 82.6 ± 1.25 days in mice vaccinated with P5+435 + CpG+ PADRE. Our results demonstrate that inclusion of PADRE and CpG with the peptide vaccine enhanced significant tumor specific-immune responses in vaccinated mice.
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Peptide Dose and/or Structure in Vaccines as a Determinant of T Cell Responses. Vaccines (Basel) 2014; 2:537-48. [PMID: 26344744 PMCID: PMC4494221 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines2030537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2014] [Revised: 05/13/2014] [Accepted: 06/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
While T cells recognise the complex of peptide and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) at the cell surface, changes in the dose and/or structure of the peptide component can have profound effects on T cell activation and function. In addition, the repertoire of T cells capable of responding to any given peptide is variable, but broader than a single clone. Consequently, peptide parameters that affect the interaction between T cells and peptide/MHC have been shown to select particular T cell clones for expansion and this impacts on clearance of disease. T cells with high functional avidity are selected on low doses of peptide, while low avidity T cells are favoured in high peptide concentrations. Altering the structure of the peptide ligand can also influence the selection and function of peptide-specific T cell clones. In this review, we will explore the evidence that the choice of peptide dose or the structure of the peptide are critical parameters in an effective vaccine designed to activate T cells.
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Lövgren T, Baumgaertner P, Wieckowski S, Devêvre E, Guillaume P, Luescher I, Rufer N, Speiser DE. Enhanced cytotoxicity and decreased CD8 dependence of human cancer-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes after vaccination with low peptide dose. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2012; 61:817-26. [PMID: 22080404 PMCID: PMC11029156 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-011-1140-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2011] [Accepted: 10/24/2011] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
In mice, vaccination with high peptide doses generates higher frequencies of specific CD8+ T cells, but with lower avidity compared to vaccination with lower peptide doses. To investigate the impact of peptide dose on CD8+ T cell responses in humans, melanoma patients were vaccinated with 0.1 or 0.5 mg Melan-A/MART-1 peptide, mixed with CpG 7909 and Incomplete Freund's adjuvant. Neither the kinetics nor the amplitude of the Melan-A-specific CD8+ T cell responses differed between the two vaccination groups. Also, CD8+ T cell differentiation and cytokine production ex vivo were similar in the two groups. Interestingly, after low peptide dose vaccination, Melan-A-specific CD8+ T cells showed enhanced degranulation upon peptide stimulation, as assessed by CD107a upregulation and perforin release ex vivo. In accordance, CD8+ T cell clones derived from low peptide dose-vaccinated patients showed significantly increased degranulation and stronger cytotoxicity. In parallel, Melan-A-specific CD8+ T cells and clones from low peptide dose-vaccinated patients expressed lower CD8 levels, despite similar or even stronger binding to tetramers. Furthermore, CD8+ T cell clones from low peptide dose-vaccinated patients bound CD8 binding-deficient tetramers more efficiently, suggesting that they may express higher affinity TCRs. We conclude that low peptide dose vaccination generated CD8+ T cell responses with stronger cytotoxicity and lower CD8 dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanja Lövgren
- Clinical Tumor Biology and Immunotherapy Unit, Ludwig Center of the University of Lausanne, Hôpital Orthopédique 05/1552, Av. Pierre-Decker 4, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Petra Baumgaertner
- Clinical Tumor Biology and Immunotherapy Unit, Ludwig Center of the University of Lausanne, Hôpital Orthopédique 05/1552, Av. Pierre-Decker 4, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sébastien Wieckowski
- University Hospital Center and University of Lausanne (CHUV), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Estelle Devêvre
- Clinical Tumor Biology and Immunotherapy Unit, Ludwig Center of the University of Lausanne, Hôpital Orthopédique 05/1552, Av. Pierre-Decker 4, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Philippe Guillaume
- Clinical Tumor Biology and Immunotherapy Unit, Ludwig Center of the University of Lausanne, Hôpital Orthopédique 05/1552, Av. Pierre-Decker 4, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Immanuel Luescher
- Clinical Tumor Biology and Immunotherapy Unit, Ludwig Center of the University of Lausanne, Hôpital Orthopédique 05/1552, Av. Pierre-Decker 4, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nathalie Rufer
- Clinical Tumor Biology and Immunotherapy Unit, Ludwig Center of the University of Lausanne, Hôpital Orthopédique 05/1552, Av. Pierre-Decker 4, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
- University Hospital Center and University of Lausanne (CHUV), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Daniel E. Speiser
- Clinical Tumor Biology and Immunotherapy Unit, Ludwig Center of the University of Lausanne, Hôpital Orthopédique 05/1552, Av. Pierre-Decker 4, 1011 Lausanne, Switzerland
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Kiura K, Hasebe A, Saeki A, Segawa T, Okada F, Shamsul HM, Ohtani M, Into T, Inoue N, Wakita M, Shibata KI. In vivo anti- and pro-tumour activities of the TLR2 ligand FSL-1. Immunobiology 2011; 216:891-900. [DOI: 10.1016/j.imbio.2011.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2011] [Revised: 02/10/2011] [Accepted: 02/15/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Vaccines and immunotherapeutics for the treatment of malignant disease. Clin Dev Immunol 2010; 2010:697158. [PMID: 20936120 PMCID: PMC2948924 DOI: 10.1155/2010/697158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2010] [Accepted: 08/25/2010] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The employment of the immune system to treat malignant disease represents an active area of biomedical research. The specificity of the immune response and potential for establishing long-term tumor immunity compels researchers to continue investigations into immunotherapeutic approaches for cancer. A number of immunotherapeutic strategies have arisen for the treatment of malignant disease, including various vaccination schemes, cytokine therapy, adoptive cellular therapy, and monoclonal antibody therapy. This paper describes each of these strategies and discusses some of the associated successes and limitations. Emphasis is placed on the integration of techniques to promote optimal scenarios for eliminating cancer.
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Toll-like receptors: role in dermatological disease. Mediators Inflamm 2010; 2010:437246. [PMID: 20847936 PMCID: PMC2933899 DOI: 10.1155/2010/437246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2010] [Revised: 04/27/2010] [Accepted: 07/01/2010] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a class of conserved receptors that recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) present in microbes. In humans, at least ten TLRs have been identified, and their recognition targets range from bacterial endotoxins to lipopeptides, DNA, dsRNA, ssRNA, fungal products, and several host factors. Of dermatological interest, these receptors are expressed on several skin cells including keratinocytes, melanocytes, and Langerhans cells. TLRs are essential in identifying microbial products and are known to link the innate and adaptive immune systems. Over the years, there have been significant advances in our understanding of TLRs in skin inflammation, cutaneous malignancies, and defence mechanisms. In this paper, we will describe the association between TLRs and various skin pathologies and discuss proposed TLR therapeutics.
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Zhou FL, Meng S, Zhang WG, Wei YC, Cao XM, Bai GG, Wang BY. Peptide-based immunotherapy for multiple myeloma: current approaches. Vaccine 2010; 28:5939-46. [PMID: 20619381 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.06.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2010] [Revised: 06/12/2010] [Accepted: 06/28/2010] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Multiple myeloma (MM) is a clonal B-cell malignancy with many fatal clinical sequelae. Despite extensive therapeutic approaches, cures remain rare exceptions. A recent promising area of investigation is the development of immunotherapeutic approaches that target and eliminate myeloma cells more selectively. Because of its potential to promote the destruction of cancerous cells via cytotoxic T-cell responses, peptide-based immunotherapy is one of these strategies to have attracted considerable attention. Furthermore, many studies were carried out to identify the best epitope peptides, the optimal vaccine formulation and schedule, and the preferable clinical situation for vaccination. Based on these results, various epitope peptides have been identified that may be selectively targeted by host immunity, and various approaches have been used to enhance the immune responses of peptides. This chapter focuses on reviewing previous immunotherapy trials, describing the current strategies for peptide-based immunotherapy, and discussing the achievable prospects in MM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu-Ling Zhou
- Department of Clinical Hematology, The Affiliated No. 2 Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University, The West Five Road, No. 157, Xi'an 710004, PR China.
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Overstreet MG, Freyberger H, Cockburn IA, Chen YC, Tse SW, Zavala F. CpG-enhanced CD8+ T-cell responses to peptide immunization are severely inhibited by B cells. Eur J Immunol 2010; 40:124-33. [PMID: 19830730 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200939493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic peptides encoding protective pathogen-derived epitopes represent--in principle--an ideal approach to T-cell vaccination. Empirically, however, these strategies have not been successful. In the current study, we profiled the early activation of CD8+ T cells by MHC class I-restricted peptide immunization to better understand the biology of this response. We found that CD8+ T cells proliferated robustly in response to low doses of short synthetic peptides in PBS, but failed to acquire effector function or form memory populations in the absence of the TLR ligand CpG. CpG was unique among TLR ligands in its ability to enhance the response to peptide and its adjuvant effects had strict temporal requirements. Interestingly, CpG treatment modulated T-cell expression of the surface receptors PD-1 and CD25, providing insight into its possible adjuvant mechanism. The effects of CpG on peptide immunization were dramatically enhanced in the absence of B cells, demonstrating a unique system of regulation of T-cell responses by these lymphocytes. The results reported here provide insight into the complex response to a simple vaccination regimen, as well as a framework for a rational peptide-based vaccine design to both exploit and overcome targeted aspects of the immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael G Overstreet
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Malaria Research Institute, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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Derré L, Rivals JP, Jandus C, Pastor S, Rimoldi D, Romero P, Michielin O, Olive D, Speiser DE. BTLA mediates inhibition of human tumor-specific CD8+ T cells that can be partially reversed by vaccination. J Clin Invest 2009; 120:157-67. [PMID: 20038811 DOI: 10.1172/jci40070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 222] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2009] [Accepted: 10/07/2009] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The function of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells, which may protect against both infectious and malignant diseases, can be impaired by ligation of their inhibitory receptors, which include CTL-associated protein 4 (CTLA-4) and programmed cell death 1 (PD-1). Recently, B and T lymphocyte attenuator (BTLA) was identified as a novel inhibitory receptor with structural and functional similarities to CTLA-4 and PD-1. BTLA triggering leads to decreased antimicrobial and autoimmune T cell responses in mice, but its functions in humans are largely unknown. Here we have demonstrated that as human viral antigen-specific CD8+ T cells differentiated from naive to effector cells, their surface expression of BTLA was gradually downregulated. In marked contrast, human melanoma tumor antigen-specific effector CD8+ T cells persistently expressed high levels of BTLA in vivo and remained susceptible to functional inhibition by its ligand herpes virus entry mediator (HVEM). Such persistence of BTLA expression was also found in tumor antigen-specific CD8+ T cells from melanoma patients with spontaneous antitumor immune responses and after conventional peptide vaccination. Remarkably, addition of CpG oligodeoxynucleotides to the vaccine formulation led to progressive downregulation of BTLA in vivo and consequent resistance to BTLA-HVEM-mediated inhibition. Thus, BTLA activation inhibits the function of human CD8+ cancer-specific T cells, and appropriate immunotherapy may partially overcome this inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Derré
- Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Hôpital Orthopédique, Niveau 5 Est, Av. Pierre-Decker 4, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Haining WN, Davies J, Kanzler H, Drury L, Brenn T, Evans J, Angelosanto J, Rivoli S, Russell K, George S, Sims P, Neuberg D, Li X, Kutok J, Morgan J, Wen P, Demetri G, Coffman RL, Nadler LM. CpG oligodeoxynucleotides alter lymphocyte and dendritic cell trafficking in humans. Clin Cancer Res 2008; 14:5626-34. [PMID: 18765557 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-08-0526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE CpG oligodeoxynucleotides (CpG-ODN) are being investigated as cancer vaccine adjuvants because they mature plasmacytoid dendritic cells (PDC) into potent antigen-presenting cells. CpG-ODN also induce PDC to secrete chemokines that alter lymphocyte migration. Whether CpG-ODN TLR signals enhance antigen-specific immunity and/or trafficking in humans is unknown. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN We conducted a phase I study of CpG-ODN (1018 ISS) given as a vaccine adjuvant with granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) to induce T-cell immunity to a peptide vaccine from the tumor-associated antigen hTERT. RESULTS The adjuvant effect was limited; only 1 of 16 patients showed a high-frequency hTERT-specific tetramer CD8(+) T-cell response. However, CpG-ODN induced marked, transient peripheral blood lymphopenia. Biopsies showed dense lymphocytic infiltration at the vaccine site clustered around activated PDC. In vitro, CpG-ODN-treated PDC induced T-cell migration, showing that CpG-ODN stimulation of human PDC was sufficient to chemoattract T cells. CONCLUSIONS Our results show that (a) CpG-ODN with GM-CSF may not be an effective adjuvant strategy for hTERT peptide vaccines but (b) GM-CSF/CpG-ODN causes a PDC-mediated chemokine response that recruits T-cell migration to the peripheral tissues. These findings suggest a novel therapeutic role for targeted injections of CpG-ODN to direct lymphocyte migration to specific sites such as the tumor bed.
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Affiliation(s)
- W Nicholas Haining
- Department of Hematology/Oncology, Children's Hospital, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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Kochenderfer JN, Gress RE. A comparison and critical analysis of preclinical anticancer vaccination strategies. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2007; 232:1130-41. [PMID: 17895521 DOI: 10.3181/0702-mr-42] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Anticancer vaccines have been extensively studied in animal models and in clinical trials. While vaccination can lead to tumor protection in numerous murine models, objective tumor regressions after anticancer vaccination in clinical trials have been rare. B16 is a poorly immunogenic murine melanoma that has been extensively used in anticancer vaccination experiments. Because B16 has been widely used, different vaccination strategies can be compared. We reviewed the results obtained when B16 was treated with five common vaccine types: recombinant viral vaccines, DNA vaccines, dendritic cell vaccines, whole-tumor vaccines, and peptide vaccines. We also reviewed the results obtained when B16 was treated with vaccines combined with adoptive transfer of tumor antigen-specific T cells. We found several characteristics of vaccination regimens that were associated with antitumor efficacy. Many vaccines that incorporated xenogeneic antigens exhibited more potent anticancer activity than vaccines that were identical except that they incorporated the syngeneic version of the same antigen. Interleukin-2 enhanced the antitumor efficacy of several vaccines. Finally, several effective regimens generated large numbers of tumor antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells. Identification of vaccine characteristics that are associated with antitumor efficacy may aid in the development of more effective anticancer vaccination strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- J N Kochenderfer
- Experimental Transplantation and Immunology Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, USA.
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