Automatic segmentation of hyperreflective foci in OCT images

Novel artificial intelligence algorithms for diabetic retinopathy and diabetic macular edema

BACKGROUND

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) and diabetic macular edema (DME) are major causes of visual impairment that challenge global vision health. New strategies are needed to tackle these growing global health problems, and the integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into ophthalmology has the potential to revolutionize DR and DME management to meet these challenges.

MAIN TEXT

This review discusses the latest AI-driven methodologies in the context of DR and DME in terms of disease identification, patient-specific disease profiling, and short-term and long-term management. This includes current screening and diagnostic systems and their real-world implementation, lesion detection and analysis, disease progression prediction, and treatment response models. It also highlights the technical advancements that have been made in these areas. Despite these advancements, there are obstacles to the widespread adoption of these technologies in clinical settings, including regulatory and privacy concerns, the need for extensive validation, and integration with existing healthcare systems. We also explore the disparity between the potential of AI models and their actual effectiveness in real-world applications.

CONCLUSION

AI has the potential to revolutionize the management of DR and DME, offering more efficient and precise tools for healthcare professionals. However, overcoming challenges in deployment, regulatory compliance, and patient privacy is essential for these technologies to realize their full potential. Future research should aim to bridge the gap between technological innovation and clinical application, ensuring AI tools integrate seamlessly into healthcare workflows to enhance patient outcomes.

Automatic exudate and aneurysm segmentation in OCT images using UNET++ and hyperreflective-foci feature based bagged tree ensemble

Diabetic retinopathy's signs, such as exudates (EXs) and aneurysms (ANs), initially develop from under the retinal surface detectable from optical coherence tomography (OCT) images. Detecting these signs helps ophthalmologists diagnose DR sooner. Detecting and segmenting exudates (EXs) and aneurysms (ANs) in medical images is challenging due to their small size, similarity to other hyperreflective regions, noise presence, and low background contrast. Furthermore, the scarcity of public OCT images featuring these abnormalities has limited the number of studies related to the automatic segmentation of EXs and ANs, and the reported performance of such studies has not been satisfactory. This work proposes an efficient algorithm that can automatically segment these anomalies by improving key steps in the process. The potential area where these hyper-reflective EXs and ANs occur was scoped by our method using a deep-learning U-Net++ program. From this area, the candidates for EX-AN were segmented using the adaptive thresholding method. Nine features based on appearances, locations, and shadow markers were extracted from these candidates. They were trained and tested using bagged tree ensemble classifiers to obtain only EX-AN blobs. The proposed method was tested on a collection of a public dataset comprising 80 images with hand-drawn ground truths. The experimental results showed that our method could segment EX-AN blobs with average recall, precision, and F1-measure as 87.9%, 86.1%, and 87.0%, respectively. Its F1-measure drastically outperformed two comparative methods, binary thresholding and watershed (BT-WS) and adaptive thresholding with shadow tracking (AT-ST), by 78.0% and 82.1%, respectively.

Rediscovering Age-Related Macular Degeneration with Swept-Source OCT Imaging: The 2022 Charles L. Schepens, MD, Lecture

PURPOSE

Swept-source OCT angiography (SS-OCTA) scans of eyes with age-related macular degeneration (AMD) were used to replace color, autofluorescence, infrared reflectance, and dye-based fundus angiographic imaging for the diagnosis and staging of AMD. Through the use of different algorithms with the SS-OCTA scans, both structural and angiographic information can be viewed and assessed using both cross sectional and en face imaging strategies.

DESIGN

Presented at the 2022 Charles L. Schepens, MD, Lecture at the American Academy of Ophthalmology Retina Subspecialty Day, Chicago, Illinois, on September 30, 2022.

PARTICIPANTS

Patients with AMD.

METHODS

Review of published literature and ongoing clinical research using SS-OCTA imaging in AMD.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Swept-source OCT angiography imaging of AMD at different stages of disease progression.

RESULTS

Volumetric SS-OCTA dense raster scans were used to diagnose and stage both exudative and nonexudative AMD. In eyes with nonexudative AMD, a single SS-OCTA scan was used to detect and measure structural features in the macula such as the area and volume of both typical soft drusen and calcified drusen, the presence and location of hyperreflective foci, the presence of reticular pseudodrusen, also known as subretinal drusenoid deposits, the thickness of the outer retinal layer, the presence and thickness of basal laminar deposits, the presence and area of persistent choroidal hypertransmission defects, and the presence of treatment-naïve nonexudative macular neovascularization. In eyes with exudative AMD, the same SS-OCTA scan pattern was used to detect and measure the presence of macular fluid, the presence and type of macular neovascularization, and the response of exudation to treatment with vascular endothelial growth factor inhibitors. In addition, the same scan pattern was used to quantitate choriocapillaris (CC) perfusion, CC thickness, choroidal thickness, and the vascularity of the choroid.

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with using several different instruments to perform multimodal imaging, a single SS-OCTA scan provides a convenient, comfortable, and comprehensive approach for obtaining qualitative and quantitative anatomic and angiographic information to monitor the onset, progression, and response to therapies in both nonexudative and exudative AMD.

FINANCIAL DISCLOSURE(S)

Proprietary or commercial disclosure may be found in the Footnotes and Disclosures at the end of this article.

IMPDH1-associated autosomal dominant retinitis pigmentosa: natural history of novel variant Lys314Gln and a comprehensive literature search

BACKGROUND

Inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) is a key regulatory enzyme in the de novo synthesis of the purine base guanine. Mutations in the inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase 1 gene (IMPDH1) are causative for RP10 autosomal dominant retinitis pigmentosa (adRP). This study reports a novel variant in a family with IMPDH1-associated retinopathy. We also performed a comprehensive review of all reported IMPDH1 disease causing variants with their associated phenotype.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Multimodal imaging and functional studies documented the phenotype including best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA), fundus photograph, fundus autofluorescence (FAF), full field electroretinogram (ffERG), optical coherence tomography (OCT) and visual field (VF) data were collected. A literature search was performed in the PubMed and LOVD repositories.

RESULTS

We report 3 cases from a 2-generation family with a novel heterozygous likely pathogenic variant p. (Lys314Gln) (exon 10). The ophthalmic phenotype showed diffuse outer retinal atrophy with mild pigmentary changes with sparse pigmentary changes. FAF showed early macular involvement with macular hyperautofluorescence (hyperAF) surrounded by hypoAF. Foveal ellipsoid zone island can be found in the youngest patient but not in the older ones. The literature review identified a further 56 heterozygous, 1 compound heterozygous, and 2 homozygous variant. The heterozygous group included 43 missense, 3 in-frame, 1 nonsense, 2 frameshift, 1 synonymous, and 6 intronic variants. Exon 10 was noted as a hotspot harboring 18 variants.

CONCLUSIONS

We report a novel IMPDH1 variant. IMPDH1-associated retinopathy presents most frequently in the first decade of life with early macular involvement.

Segmentation of paracentral acute middle maculopathy lesions in spectral-domain optical coherence tomography images through weakly supervised deep convolutional networks

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) is a valuable tool for non-invasive imaging of the retina, allowing the discovery and visualization of localized lesions, the presence of which is associated with eye diseases. The present study introduces X-Net, a weakly supervised deep-learning framework for automated segmentation of paracentral acute middle maculopathy (PAMM) lesions in retinal SD-OCT images. Despite recent advances in the development of automatic methods for clinical analysis of OCT scans, there remains a scarcity of studies focusing on the automated detection of small retinal focal lesions. Additionally, most existing solutions depend on supervised learning, which can be time-consuming and require extensive image labeling, whereas X-Net offers a solution to these challenges. As far as we can determine, no prior study has addressed the segmentation of PAMM lesions in SD-OCT images.

METHODS

This study leverages 133 SD-OCT retinal images, each containing instances of paracentral acute middle maculopathy lesions. A team of eye experts annotated the PAMM lesions in these images using bounding boxes. Then, labeled data were used to train a U-Net that performs pre-segmentation, producing region labels of pixel-level accuracy. To attain a highly-accurate final segmentation, we introduced X-Net, a novel neural network made up of a master and a slave U-Net. During training, it takes the expert annotated, and pixel-level pre-segment annotated images and employs sophisticated strategies to ensure the highest segmentation accuracy.

RESULTS

The proposed method was rigorously evaluated on clinical retinal images excluded from training and achieved an accuracy of 99% with a high level of similarity between the automatic segmentation and expert annotation, as demonstrated by a mean Intersection-over-Union of 0.8. Alternative methods were tested on the same data. Single-stage neural networks proved insufficient for achieving satisfactory results, confirming that more advanced solutions, such as the proposed method, are necessary. We also found that X-Net using Attention U-net for both the pre-segmentation and X-Net arms for the final segmentation shows comparable performance to the proposed method, suggesting that the proposed approach remains a viable solution even when implemented with variants of the classic U-Net.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed method exhibits reasonably high performance, validated through quantitative and qualitative evaluations. Medical eye specialists have also verified its validity and accuracy. Thus, it could be a viable tool in the clinical assessment of the retina. Additionally, the demonstrated approach for annotating the training set has proven to be effective in reducing the expert workload.

Unleashing the power of optical attenuation coefficients to facilitate segmentation strategies in OCT imaging of age-related macular degeneration: perspective

The use of optical attenuation coefficients (OAC) in optical coherence tomography (OCT) imaging of the retina has improved the segmentation of anatomic layers compared with traditional intensity-based algorithms. Optical attenuation correction has improved our ability to measure the choroidal thickness and choroidal vascularity index using dense volume scans. Algorithms that combine conventional intensity-based segmentation with depth-resolved OAC OCT imaging have been used to detect elevations of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) due to drusen and basal laminar deposits, the location of hyperpigmentation within the retina and along the RPE, the identification of macular atrophy, the thickness of the outer retinal (photoreceptor) layer, and the presence of calcified drusen. OAC OCT algorithms can identify the risk-factors that predict disease progression in age-related macular degeneration.

Automated segmentation and quantification of calcified drusen in 3D swept source OCT imaging

Qualitative and quantitative assessments of calcified drusen are clinically important for determining the risk of disease progression in age-related macular degeneration (AMD). This paper reports the development of an automated algorithm to segment and quantify calcified drusen on swept-source optical coherence tomography (SS-OCT) images. The algorithm leverages the higher scattering property of calcified drusen compared with soft drusen. Calcified drusen have a higher optical attenuation coefficient (OAC), which results in a choroidal hypotransmission defect (hypoTD) below the calcified drusen. We show that it is possible to automatically segment calcified drusen from 3D SS-OCT scans by combining the OAC within drusen and the hypoTDs under drusen. We also propose a correction method for the segmentation of the retina pigment epithelium (RPE) overlying calcified drusen by automatically correcting the RPE by an amount of the OAC peak width along each A-line, leading to more accurate segmentation and quantification of drusen in general, and the calcified drusen in particular. A total of 29 eyes with nonexudative AMD and calcified drusen imaged with SS-OCT using the 6 × 6 mm² scanning pattern were used in this study to test the performance of the proposed automated method. We demonstrated that the method achieved good agreement with the human expert graders in identifying the area of calcified drusen (Dice similarity coefficient: 68.27 ± 11.09%, correlation coefficient of the area measurements: r = 0.9422, the mean bias of the area measurements = 0.04781 mm²).

Automated detection of hyperreflective foci in the outer nuclear layer of the retina

PURPOSE

Hyperreflective foci are poorly understood transient elements seen on optical coherence tomography (OCT) of the retina in both healthy and diseased eyes. Systematic studies may benefit from the development of automated tools that can map and track such foci. The outer nuclear layer (ONL) of the retina is an attractive layer in which to study hyperreflective foci as it has no fixed hyperreflective elements in healthy eyes. In this study, we intended to evaluate whether automated image analysis can identify, quantify and visualize hyperreflective foci in the ONL of the retina.

METHODS

This longitudinal exploratory study investigated 14 eyes of seven patients including six patients with optic neuropathy and one with mild non-proliferative diabetic retinopathy. In total, 2596 OCT B-scan were obtained. An image analysis blob detector algorithm was used to detect candidate foci, and a convolutional neural network (CNN) trained on a manually labelled subset of data was then used to select those candidate foci in the ONL that fitted the characteristics of the reference foci best.

RESULTS

In the manually labelled data set, the blob detector found 2548 candidate foci, correctly detecting 350 (89%) out of 391 manually labelled reference foci. The accuracy of CNN classifier was assessed by manually splitting the 2548 candidate foci into a training and validation set. On the validation set, the classifier obtained an accuracy of 96.3%, a sensitivity of 88.4% and a specificity of 97.5% (AUC 0.989).

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that automated image analysis and machine learning methods can be used to successfully identify, quantify and visualize hyperreflective foci in the ONL of the retina on OCT scans.

Quantitative approaches in multimodal fundus imaging: State of the art and future perspectives

When it first appeared, multimodal fundus imaging revolutionized the diagnostic workup and provided extremely useful new insights into the pathogenesis of fundus diseases. The recent addition of quantitative approaches has further expanded the amount of information that can be obtained. In spite of the growing interest in advanced quantitative metrics, the scientific community has not reached a stable consensus on repeatable, standardized quantitative techniques to process and analyze the images. Furthermore, imaging artifacts may considerably affect the processing and interpretation of quantitative data, potentially affecting their reliability. The aim of this survey is to provide a comprehensive summary of the main multimodal imaging techniques, covering their limitations as well as their strengths. We also offer a thorough analysis of current quantitative imaging metrics, looking into their technical features, limitations, and interpretation. In addition, we describe the main imaging artifacts and their potential impact on imaging quality and reliability. The prospect of increasing reliance on artificial intelligence-based analyses suggests there is a need to develop more sophisticated quantitative metrics and to improve imaging technologies, incorporating clear, standardized, post-processing procedures. These measures are becoming urgent if these analyses are to cross the threshold from a research context to real-life clinical practice.

Automatic segmentation of hyperreflective dots via focal priors and visual saliency

PURPOSE

Hyperreflective dots (HRDs) can be observed in spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT), which can provide a sensitive marker in the treatment decision process. Quantitative analyses of HRDs are the key to make appropriate decisions on observation, treatment, and retreatment. The purpose of this study is to automatically and accurately segment HRDs in SD-OCT B-scans with diabetic retinopathy (DR).

METHODS

The authors propose an automatic segmentation algorithm of HRDs via focal priors and visual saliency. The algorithm is divided into three stages: segmentation of retinal layers, calculation of the multiscale local contrast saliency map, and adaptive threshold segmentation. First, a method based on improved graph search is used to segment retinal layers to obtain the region of interest (ROI) and the reflectivity estimation of the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) layer; then, the multiscale local contrast saliency map is obtained by using a local contrast measure, which measures the dissimilarity between the current pixels and corresponding neighborhoods; finally, an adaptive threshold is applied to segment HRDs.

RESULTS

Experimental results on 20 SD-OCT B-scans demonstrate that our method is effective for HRDs segmentation. The average dice similarity coefficient (DSC) and detection accuracy are 71.12% and 85.07%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed method can accurately segment HRDs in SD-OCT B-scans with DR and outperforms current state-of-the-art methods. Our method can provide reliable HRDs segmentation to assist ophthalmologists in clinical diagnosis, treatment, disease monitoring, and progression.

Retinal optical coherence tomography image analysis by a restricted Boltzmann machine

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is an emerging imaging technique for ophthalmic disease diagnosis. Two major problems in OCT image analysis are image enhancement and image segmentation. Deep learning methods have achieved excellent performance in image analysis. However, most of the deep learning-based image analysis models are supervised learning-based approaches and need a high volume of training data (e.g., reference clean images for image enhancement and accurate annotated images for segmentation). Moreover, acquiring reference clean images for OCT image enhancement and accurate annotation of the high volume of OCT images for segmentation is hard. So, it is difficult to extend these deep learning methods to the OCT image analysis. We propose an unsupervised learning-based approach for OCT image enhancement and abnormality segmentation, where the model can be trained without reference images. The image is reconstructed by Restricted Boltzmann Machine (RBM) by defining a target function and minimizing it. For OCT image enhancement, each image is independently learned by the RBM network and is eventually reconstructed. In the reconstruction phase, we use the ReLu function instead of the Sigmoid function. Reconstruction of images given by the RBM network leads to improved image contrast in comparison to other competitive methods in terms of contrast to noise ratio (CNR). For anomaly detection, hyper-reflective foci (HF) as one of the first signs in retinal OCTs of patients with diabetic macular edema (DME) are identified based on image reconstruction by RBM and post-processing by removing the HFs candidates outside the area between the first and the last retinal layers. Our anomaly detection method achieves a high ability to detect abnormalities.

Depth-resolved visualization and automated quantification of hyperreflective foci on OCT scans using optical attenuation coefficients

An automated depth-resolved algorithm using optical attenuation coefficients (OACs) was developed to visualize, localize, and quantify hyperreflective foci (HRF) seen on OCT imaging that are associated with macular hyperpigmentation and represent an increased risk of disease progression in age related macular degeneration. To achieve this, we first transformed the OCT scans to linear representation, which were then contrasted by OACs. HRF were visualized and localized within the entire scan by differentiating HRF within the retina from HRF along the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). The total pigment burden was quantified using the en face sum projection of an OAC slab between the inner limiting membrane (ILM) to Bruch's membrane (BM). The manual total pigment burden measurements were also obtained by combining manual outlines of HRF in the B-scans with the total area of hypotransmission defects outlined on sub-RPE slabs, which was used as the reference to compare with those obtained from the automated algorithm. 6×6 mm swept-source OCT scans were collected from a total of 49 eyes from 42 patients with macular HRF. We demonstrate that the algorithm was able to automatically distinguish between HRF within the retina and HRF along the RPE. In 24 test eyes, the total pigment burden measurements by the automated algorithm were compared with measurements obtained from manual segmentations. A significant correlation was found between the total pigment area measurements from the automated and manual segmentations (P < 0.001). The proposed automated algorithm based on OACs should be useful in studying eye diseases involving HRF.

Joint segmentation of multi-class hyper-reflective foci in retinal optical coherence tomography images

Hyper-reflective foci (HRF) refers to the spot-shaped, block-shaped areas with characteristics of high local contrast and high reflectivity, which is mostly observed in retinal optical coherence tomography (OCT) images of patients with fundus diseases. HRF mainly appears hard exudates (HE) and microglia (MG) clinically. Accurate segmentation of HE and MG is essential to alleviate the harm in retinal diseases. However, it is still a challenge to segment HE and MG simultaneously due to similar pathological features, various shapes and location distribution, blurred boundaries, and small morphology dimensions. To tackle these problems, in this paper, we propose a novel global information fusion and dual decoder collaboration-based network (GD-Net), which can segment HE and MG in OCT images jointly. Specifically, to suppress the interference of similar pathological features, a novel global information fusion (GIF) module is proposed, which can aggregate the global semantic information efficiently. To further improve the segmentation performance, we design a dual decoder collaborative workspace (DDCW) to comprehensively utilize the semantic correlation between HE and MG while enhancing the mutual influence on them by feedback alternately. To further optimize GD-Net, we explore a joint loss function which integrates pixel-level with image-level. The dataset of this study comes from patients diagnosed with diabetic macular edema at the department of ophthalmology, University Medical Center Groningen, the Netherlands. Experimental results show that our proposed method performs better than other state-of-the-art methods, which suggests the effectiveness of the proposed method and provides research ideas for medical applications.

OCT Hyperreflective Retinal Foci in Diabetic Retinopathy: A Semi-Automatic Detection Comparative Study

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) allows us to identify, into retinal layers, new morphological entities, which can be considered clinical biomarkers of retinal diseases. According to the literature, solitary, small (<30 µm), medium level hyperreflective (similar to retinal fiber layer) retinal foci (HRF) may represent aggregates of activated microglial cells and an in vivo biomarker of retinal inflammation. The identification and quantification of this imaging biomarker allows for estimating the level and possibly the amount of intraretinal inflammation in major degenerative retinal disorders, whose inflammatory component has already been demonstrated (diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration, radiation retinopathy). Currently, diabetic retinopathy (DR) probably represents the best clinical model to apply this analysis in the definition of this clinical biomarker. However, the main limitation to the clinical use of HRF is related to the technical difficulty of counting them: a time-consuming methodology, which also needs trained examiners. To contribute to solve this limitation, we developed and validated a new method for the semi-automatic detection of HRF in OCT scans. OCT scans of patients affected by DR, were analyzed. HRF were manually counted in High Resolution spectral domain OCT images. Then, the same OCT scans underwent semi-automatic HRF counting, using an ImageJ software with four different settings profiles. Statistical analysis showed an excellent intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) between the manual count and each of the four semi-automated methods. The use of the second setting profile allows to obtain at the Bland–Altman graph a bias of −0.2 foci and a limit of agreement of ±16.3 foci. This validation approach opens the way not only to the reliable and daily clinical applicable quantification of HRF, but also to a better knowledge of the inflammatory component—including its progression and regression changes—of diabetic retinopathy.

Manual and Automatic Image Analysis Segmentation Methods for Blood Flow Studies in Microchannels

In blood flow studies, image analysis plays an extremely important role to examine raw data obtained by high-speed video microscopy systems. This work shows different ways to process the images which contain various blood phenomena happening in microfluidic devices and in microcirculation. For this purpose, the current methods used for tracking red blood cells (RBCs) flowing through a glass capillary and techniques to measure the cell-free layer thickness in different kinds of microchannels will be presented. Most of the past blood flow experimental data have been collected and analyzed by means of manual methods, that can be extremely reliable, but they are highly time-consuming, user-intensive, repetitive, and the results can be subjective to user-induced errors. For this reason, it is crucial to develop image analysis methods able to obtain the data automatically. Concerning automatic image analysis methods for individual RBCs tracking and to measure the well known microfluidic phenomena cell-free layer, two developed methods are presented and discussed in order to demonstrate their feasibility to obtain accurate data acquisition in such studies. Additionally, a comparison analysis between manual and automatic methods was performed.

Prediction of response to anti-vascular endothelial growth factor treatment in diabetic macular oedema using an optical coherence tomography-based machine learning method

PURPOSE

To predict the anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) therapeutic response of diabetic macular oedema (DME) patients from optical coherence tomography (OCT) at the initiation stage of treatment using a machine learning-based self-explainable system.

METHODS

A total of 712 DME patients were included and classified into poor and good responder groups according to central macular thickness decrease after three consecutive injections. Machine learning models were constructed to make predictions based on related features extracted automatically using deep learning algorithms from OCT scans at baseline. Five-fold cross-validation was applied to optimize and evaluate the models. The model with the best performance was then compared with two ophthalmologists. Feature importance was further investigated, and a Wilcoxon rank-sum test was performed to assess the difference of a single feature between two groups.

RESULTS

Of 712 patients, 294 were poor responders and 418 were good responders. The best performance for the prediction task was achieved by random forest (RF), with sensitivity, specificity and area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.900, 0.851 and 0.923. Ophthalmologist 1 and ophthalmologist 2 reached sensitivity of 0.775 and 0.750, and specificity of 0.716 and 0.821, respectively. The sum of hyperreflective dots was found to be the most relevant feature for prediction.

CONCLUSION

An RF classifier was constructed to predict the treatment response of anti-VEGF from OCT images of DME patients with high accuracy. The algorithm contributes to predicting treatment requirements in advance and provides an optimal individualized therapeutic regimen.

Fast and Automated Hyperreflective Foci Segmentation Based on Image Enhancement and Improved 3D U-Net in SD-OCT Volumes with Diabetic Retinopathy

Purpose

To design a robust and automated hyperreflective foci (HRF) segmentation framework for spectral-domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) volumes, especially volumes with low HRF-background contrast.

Methods

HRF in retinal SD-OCT volumes appear with low-contrast characteristics that results in the difficulty of HRF segmentation. Therefore to effectively segment the HRF we proposed a fully automated method for HRF segmentation in SD-OCT volumes with diabetic retinopathy (DR). First, we generated the enhanced SD-OCT images from the denoised SD-OCT images with an enhancement method. Then the enhanced images were cascaded with the denoised images as the two-channel input to the network against the low-contrast HRF. Finally, we replaced the standard convolution with slice-wise dilated convolution in the last layer of the encoder path of 3D U-Net to obtain long-range information.

Results

We evaluated our method using two-fold cross-validation on 33 SD-OCT volumes from 27 patients. The average dice similarity coefficient was 70.73%, which was higher than that of the existing methods with significant difference (P < 0.01).

Conclusions

Experimental results demonstrated that the proposed method is faster and achieves more reliable segmentation results than the current HRF segmentation algorithms. We expect that this method will contribute to clinical diagnosis and disease surveillance.

Translational Relevance

Our framework for the automated HRF segmentation of SD-OCT volumes may improve the clinical diagnosis of DR.