Nutritional considerations in heart failure

Sodium Intake and Target Organ Damage in Hypertension-An Update about the Role of a Real Villain

Salt intake is too high for safety nowadays. The main active ion in salt is sodium. The vast majority of scientific evidence points out the importance of sodium restriction for decreasing cardiovascular risk. International Guidelines recommend a large reduction in sodium consumption to help reduce blood pressure, organ damage, and cardiovascular risk. Regulatory authorities across the globe suggest a general restriction of sodium intake to prevent cardiovascular diseases. In spite of this seemingly unanimous consensus, some researchers claim to have evidence of the unhealthy effects of a reduction of sodium intake, and have data to support their claims. Evidence is against dissenting scientists, because prospective, observational, and basic research studies indicate that sodium is the real villain: actual sodium consumption around the globe is far higher than the safe range. Sodium intake is directly related to increased blood pressure, and independently to the enlargement of cardiac mass, with a possible independent role in inducing left ventricular hypertrophy. This may represent the basis of myocardial ischemia, congestive heart failure, and cardiac mortality. Although debated, a high sodium intake may induce initial renal damage and progression in both hypertensive and normotensive subjects. Conversely, there is general agreement about the adverse role of sodium in cerebrovascular disease. These factors point to the possible main role of sodium intake in target organ damage and cardiovascular events including mortality. This review will endeavor to outline the existing evidence.

The Role of Nutritional Status in Elderly Patients with Heart Failure

Evidence indicates that malnutrition very frequently co-occurs with chronic heart failure (HF) and leads to a range of negative consequences. Studies show associations between malnutrition and wound healing disorders, an increased rate of postoperative complications, and mortality. In addition, considering the increasing age of patients with HF, a specific approach to their treatment is required. Guidelines proposed by the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) for treating acute and chronic HF refer to the need to monitor and prevent malnutrition in HF patients. However, the guidelines feature no strict nutritional recommendations for HF patients, who are at high nutritional risk as a group, nor do they offer any such recommendations for the poor nutritional status subgroup, for which high morbidity and mortality rates have been observed. In the context of multidisciplinary healthcare, recommended by the ESC and proven by research to offer multifaceted benefits, nutritional status should be systematically assessed in HF patients. Malnutrition has become a challenge within healthcare systems and day-to-day clinical practice, especially in developed countries, where it affects the course of disease and patients' prognosis.

Muscle wasting and cachexia in heart failure: mechanisms and therapies

Body wasting is a serious complication that affects a large proportion of patients with heart failure. Muscle wasting, also known as sarcopenia, is the loss of muscle mass and strength, whereas cachexia describes loss of weight. After reaching guideline-recommended doses of heart failure therapies, the most promising approach to treating body wasting seems to be combined therapy that includes exercise, nutritional counselling, and drug treatment. Nutritional considerations include avoiding excessive salt and fluid intake, and replenishment of deficiencies in trace elements. Administration of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids is beneficial in selected patients. High-calorific nutritional supplements can also be useful. The prescription of aerobic exercise training that provokes mild or moderate breathlessness has good scientific support. Drugs with potential benefit in the treatment of body wasting that have been tested in clinical studies in patients with heart failure include testosterone, ghrelin, recombinant human growth hormone, essential amino acids, and β₂-adrenergic receptor agonists. In this Review, we summarize the pathophysiological mechanisms of muscle wasting and cachexia in heart failure, and highlight the potential treatment strategies. We aim to provide clinicians with the relevant information on body wasting to understand and treat these conditions in patients with heart failure.

Assessing the Quality and Comparative Effectiveness of Team-Based Care for Heart Failure: Who, What, Where, When, and How

Team-based or multidisciplinary care may be a potential way to positively impact outcomes for heart failure (HF) patients by improving clinical outcomes, managing patient symptoms, and reducing costs. The multidisciplinary team includes the HF cardiologist, HF nurses, clinical pharmacists, dieticians, exercise specialists, mental health providers, social workers, primary care providers, and additional subspecialty providers. The timing and setting of multidisciplinary care depends on the needs of the patient and the resources available. Multidisciplinary HF teams should be evaluated based on their ability to achieve goals, as well as their potential for sustainability over time.

What should we tell patients with heart failure about sodium restriction and how should we counsel them?

This article is a review of current evidence regarding the recommended level of dietary sodium, involvement of family members in adoption of a low sodium diet, and evidence-based strategies to increase patient and family member willingness and ability to a follow a low sodium diet. The available evidence suggests that recommending a 2.5 to 3 g sodium diet will meet nutritional needs and decrease risk of hospitalizations. The best strategy identified for patient success is to fully involve both patients and family members in jointly reducing sodium intake. Motivational interviewing techniques should be used before counseling begins to guide patients and family members toward realization of the need to follow a low sodium diet. Successful counseling starts with determining perceptions, barriers, and individual characteristics that impede adherence. This information is incorporated into theory-based teaching strategies to promote behavior change and successful adoption of a low sodium diet.