Continued development of recursive thinking in adolescence: Longitudinal analyses with a revised recursive thinking test

Theory of mind in children with cochlear implants: Comparison with age- and sex-matched children with normal hearing

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS

Theory of mind (ToM) is a crucial ability for maintaining normal social interaction and is directly related to language ability. This study was performed to compare ToM between children with congenital hearing loss who have received cochlear implantation (CI) and those with normal hearing (NH).

STUDY DESIGN

Case-control study design.

METHODS

One hundred children, aged 2-12 years, participated: 50 children who received CI before 36 months of age (CI group) and one-to-one age- and sex-matched children with normal hearing (NH group). All children underwent tests to examine receptive language ability and ToM. Receptive language was measured using the Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary Test, and ToM was measured using the Theory of Mind Task Battery (ToM-TB). The scores of the two tests were compared between the CI and NH groups.

RESULTS

The ToM-TB score in the CI group correlated positively with age and receptive language score. ToM-TB scores did not differ significantly between children in the CI group who achieved normal receptive language and the NH group. However, these children in the CI group scored lower than those in the NH group on some advanced ToM tasks that require the ability to understand second-order emotion, message-desire discrepancy, or second-order false belief.

CONCLUSIONS

This case-control study found that children with CI who achieve normal receptive language ability have ToM that is similar to that in children with NH. However, these children exhibited weakness in advanced ToM skills. Interventions to facilitate the development of advanced ToM are needed for children with CI.

Navigating the Social Environment in Adolescence: The Role of Social Brain Development

Successful navigation of the social environment is dependent on a number of social cognitive processes, including mentalizing and resistance to peer influence. These processes continue to develop during adolescence, a time of significant social change, and are underpinned by regions of the social brain that continue to mature structurally and functionally into adulthood. In this review, we describe how mentalizing, peer influence, and emotion regulation capacities develop to aid the navigation of the social environment during adolescence. Heightened susceptibility to peer influence and hypersensitivity to social rejection in adolescence increase the likelihood of both risky and prosocial behavior in the presence of peers. Developmental differences in mentalizing and emotion regulation, and the corticosubcortical circuits that underpin these processes, might put adolescents at risk for developing mental health problems. We suggest how interventions aimed at improving prosocial behavior and emotion regulation abilities hold promise in reducing the risk of poor mental health as adolescents navigate the changes in their social environment.

Self and Others in Adolescence

Research has demonstrated that adolescence is an important time for self- and other-oriented development that underlies many skills vital for becoming a contributing member of society with healthy intergroup relations. It is often assumed that these two processes, thinking about self and thinking about others, are pitted against each other when adolescents engage in social decision making such as giving or sharing. Recent evidence from social neuroscience, however, does not support this notion of conflicting motives, suggesting instead that thinking about self and others relies on a common network of social-affective brain regions, with the medial prefrontal cortex playing a central role in the integration of perspectives related to self and others. Here, we argue that self- and other-oriented thinking are intertwined processes that rely on an overlapping neural network. Adolescents’ motivation to contribute to society can be fostered most when self- and other-oriented motives align.