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Zhang Y, Xu Y, Zhao J, Du T, Li D, Zhao X, Wang J, Li C, Tu J, Qi K. An Automated Method of 3D Facial Soft Tissue Landmark Prediction Based on Object Detection and Deep Learning. Diagnostics (Basel) 2023; 13:diagnostics13111853. [PMID: 37296704 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics13111853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Revised: 05/20/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 06/12/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Three-dimensional facial soft tissue landmark prediction is an important tool in dentistry, for which several methods have been developed in recent years, including a deep learning algorithm which relies on converting 3D models into 2D maps, which results in the loss of information and precision. METHODS This study proposes a neural network architecture capable of directly predicting landmarks from a 3D facial soft tissue model. Firstly, the range of each organ is obtained by an object detection network. Secondly, the prediction networks obtain landmarks from the 3D models of different organs. RESULTS The mean error of this method in local experiments is 2.62±2.39, which is lower than that in other machine learning algorithms or geometric information algorithms. Additionally, over 72% of the mean error of test data falls within ±2.5 mm, and 100% falls within 3 mm. Moreover, this method can predict 32 landmarks, which is higher than any other machine learning-based algorithm. CONCLUSIONS According to the results, the proposed method can precisely predict a large number of 3D facial soft tissue landmarks, which gives the feasibility of directly using 3D models for prediction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuchen Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Shaanxi Province for Craniofacial Precision Medicine Research, College of Stomatology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 98 XiWu Road, Xi'an 710004, China
- Shaanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Big Data Knowledge Engineering, School of Computer Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China
| | - Yifei Xu
- Department of Oral Anatomy and Physiology and TMD, School of Stomatology, The Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - Jiamin Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Shaanxi Province for Craniofacial Precision Medicine Research, College of Stomatology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 98 XiWu Road, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - Tianjing Du
- Key Laboratory of Shaanxi Province for Craniofacial Precision Medicine Research, College of Stomatology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 98 XiWu Road, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - Dongning Li
- Key Laboratory of Shaanxi Province for Craniofacial Precision Medicine Research, College of Stomatology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 98 XiWu Road, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - Xinyan Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Shaanxi Province for Craniofacial Precision Medicine Research, College of Stomatology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 98 XiWu Road, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - Jinxiu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Shaanxi Province for Craniofacial Precision Medicine Research, College of Stomatology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 98 XiWu Road, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - Chen Li
- Shaanxi Provincial Key Laboratory of Big Data Knowledge Engineering, School of Computer Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, China
| | - Junbo Tu
- Key Laboratory of Shaanxi Province for Craniofacial Precision Medicine Research, College of Stomatology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 98 XiWu Road, Xi'an 710004, China
| | - Kun Qi
- Key Laboratory of Shaanxi Province for Craniofacial Precision Medicine Research, College of Stomatology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, 98 XiWu Road, Xi'an 710004, China
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Faragallah OS, Naeem EA, El-Shafai W, Ramadan N, Ahmed HEDH, Elnaby MMA, Elashry I, El-khamy SE, El-Samie FEA. Efficient chaotic-Baker-map-based cancelable face recognition. JOURNAL OF AMBIENT INTELLIGENCE AND HUMANIZED COMPUTING 2023; 14:1837-1875. [DOI: 10.1007/s12652-021-03398-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 09/01/2023]
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Cheng B, Mohamed AS, Habumugisha J, Guo Y, Zou R, Wang F. A Study of the Facial Soft Tissue Morphology in Nasal- and Mouth-Breathing Patients. Int Dent J 2022; 73:403-409. [DOI: 10.1016/j.identj.2022.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2022] [Revised: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
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Optimizing Android Facial Expressions Using Genetic Algorithms. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/app9163379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Because the internal structure, degree of freedom, skin control position and range of the android face are different, it is very difficult to generate facial expressions by applying existing facial expression generation methods. In addition, facial expressions differ among robots because they are designed subjectively. To address these problems, we developed a system that can automatically generate robot facial expressions by combining an android, a recognizer capable of classifying facial expressions and a genetic algorithm. We have developed two types (older men and young women) of android face robots that can simulate human skin movements. We selected 16 control positions to generate the facial expressions of these robots. The expressions were generated by combining the displacements of 16 motors. A chromosome comprising 16 genes (motor displacements) was generated by applying real-coded genetic algorithms; subsequently, it was used to generate robot facial expressions. To determine the fitness of the generated facial expressions, expression intensity was evaluated through a facial expression recognizer. The proposed system was used to generate six facial expressions (angry, disgust, fear, happy, sad, surprised); the results confirmed that they were more appropriate than manually generated facial expressions.
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Bonacina L, Froio A, Conti D, Marcolin F, Vezzetti E. Automatic 3D foetal face model extraction from ultrasonography through histogram processing. J Med Ultrasound 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmu.2016.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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Vezzetti E, Marcolin F. 3D landmarking in multiexpression face analysis: a preliminary study on eyebrows and mouth. Aesthetic Plast Surg 2014; 38:796-811. [PMID: 24875952 DOI: 10.1007/s00266-014-0334-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2013] [Accepted: 04/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The application of three-dimensional (3D) facial analysis and landmarking algorithms in the field of maxillofacial surgery and other medical applications, such as diagnosis of diseases by facial anomalies and dysmorphism, has gained a lot of attention. In a previous work, we used a geometric approach to automatically extract some 3D facial key points, called landmarks, working in the differential geometry domain, through the coefficients of fundamental forms, principal curvatures, mean and Gaussian curvatures, derivatives, shape and curvedness indexes, and tangent map. In this article we describe the extension of our previous landmarking algorithm, which is now able to extract eyebrows and mouth landmarks using both old and new meshes. The algorithm has been tested on our face database and on the public Bosphorus 3D database. We chose to work on the mouth and eyebrows as a separate study because of the role that these parts play in facial expressions. In fact, since the mouth is the part of the face that moves the most and affects mainly facial expressions, extracting mouth landmarks from various facial poses means that the newly developed algorithm is pose-independent. NO LEVEL ASSIGNED This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each submission to which Evidence-Based Medicine rankings are applicable. This excludes Review Articles, Book Reviews, and manuscripts that concern Basic Science, Animal Studies, Cadaver Studies, and Experimental Studies. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors http://www.springer.com/00266 .
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrico Vezzetti
- Department of Management and Production Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
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Galantucci LM, Di Gioia E, Lavecchia F, Percoco G. Is principal component analysis an effective tool to predict face attractiveness? A contribution based on real 3D faces of highly selected attractive women, scanned with stereophotogrammetry. Med Biol Eng Comput 2014; 52:475-89. [DOI: 10.1007/s11517-014-1148-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2013] [Accepted: 03/03/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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