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Yadav G, Vassiliadis P, Dubuc C, Hummel FC, Derosiere G, Duque J. Effect of Extrinsic Reward on Motor Plasticity during Skill Learning. eNeuro 2025; 12:ENEURO.0410-24.2025. [PMID: 40139803 PMCID: PMC11984755 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0410-24.2025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2024] [Revised: 12/16/2024] [Accepted: 01/24/2025] [Indexed: 03/29/2025] Open
Abstract
Human motor skill acquisition is improved by performance feedback, and coupling such feedback with extrinsic reward (such as money) can enhance skill learning. However, the neurophysiology underlying such behavioral effect is unclear. To bridge this gap, we assessed the effects of reward on multiple forms of motor plasticity during skill learning. Sixty-five healthy participants divided into three groups performed a pinch-grip skill task with sensory feedback only, sensory and reinforcement feedback, or both feedback coupled with an extrinsic monetary reward during skill training. To probe motor plasticity, we applied transcranial magnetic stimulation at rest, on the left primary motor cortex before, at an early-training time point, and after training in the three groups and measured motor-evoked potentials from task-relevant muscle of the right arm. This allowed us to evaluate the amplitude and variability of corticospinal output, GABAergic short-intracortical inhibition, and use-dependent plasticity before training and at two additional time points (early and end training). At the behavioral level, monetary reward accelerated skill learning. In parallel, corticospinal output became less variable early on during training in the presence of extrinsic reward. Interestingly, this effect was particularly pronounced for participants who were more sensitive to reward, as evaluated in an independent questionnaire. Other measures of motor excitability remained comparable across groups. These findings highlight that a mechanism underlying the benefit of reward on motor skill learning is the fine-tuning of early-training resting-state corticospinal variability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Goldy Yadav
- Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels 1200, Belgium
| | - Pierre Vassiliadis
- Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels 1200, Belgium
- Defitech Chair of Clinical Neuroengineering, Neuro-X Institute (INX), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Geneva 1202, Switzerland
- Defitech Chair of Clinical Neuroengineering, Neuro-X Institute (INX), EPFL Valais, Clinique Romande de Réadaptation, Sion 1951, Switzerland
| | - Cecile Dubuc
- Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels 1200, Belgium
| | - Friedhelm C Hummel
- Defitech Chair of Clinical Neuroengineering, Neuro-X Institute (INX), École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), Geneva 1202, Switzerland
- Defitech Chair of Clinical Neuroengineering, Neuro-X Institute (INX), EPFL Valais, Clinique Romande de Réadaptation, Sion 1951, Switzerland
- Clinical Neuroscience, University of Geneva Medical School, Geneva 1202, Switzerland
| | - Gerard Derosiere
- Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, INSERM, Centre de Recherche en Neurosciences de Lyon (CRNL), U1028 UMR5292, Impact Team, Bron F-69500, France
| | - Julie Duque
- Institute of Neuroscience, Université catholique de Louvain, Brussels 1200, Belgium
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Palumbo A, Groves K, Munoz-Vidal EL, Turry A, Codio R, Raghavan P, Schambra H, Voelbel GT, Ripollés P. Improvisation and live accompaniment increase motor response and reward during a music playing task. Sci Rep 2024; 14:13112. [PMID: 38849348 PMCID: PMC11161496 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-62794-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024] Open
Abstract
Music provides a reward that can enhance learning and motivation in humans. While music is often combined with exercise to improve performance and upregulate mood, the relationship between music-induced reward and motor output is poorly understood. Here, we study music reward and motor output at the same time by capitalizing on music playing. Specifically, we investigate the effects of music improvisation and live accompaniment on motor, autonomic, and affective responses. Thirty adults performed a drumming task while (i) improvising or maintaining the beat and (ii) with live or recorded accompaniment. Motor response was characterized by acceleration of hand movements (accelerometry), wrist flexor and extensor muscle activation (electromyography), and the drum strike count (i.e., the number of drum strikes played). Autonomic arousal was measured by tonic response of electrodermal activity (EDA) and heart rate (HR). Affective responses were measured by a 12-item Likert scale. The combination of improvisation and live accompaniment, as compared to all other conditions, significantly increased acceleration of hand movements and muscle activation, as well as participant reports of reward during music playing. Improvisation, regardless of type of accompaniment, increased the drum strike count and autonomic arousal (including tonic EDA responses and several measures of HR), as well as participant reports of challenge. Importantly, increased motor response was associated with increased reward ratings during music improvisation, but not while participants were maintaining the beat. The increased motor responses achieved with improvisation and live accompaniment have important implications for enhancing dose of movement during exercise and physical rehabilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Palumbo
- Rehabilitation Sciences Program, Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA.
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA.
- Music and Audio Research Lab, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA.
- Center for Language, Music, and Emotion (CLaME), New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA.
| | - Karleigh Groves
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Music and Audio Research Lab, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Center for Language, Music, and Emotion (CLaME), New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
| | - Eva Luna Munoz-Vidal
- Rehabilitation Sciences Program, Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Music and Audio Research Lab, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Center for Language, Music, and Emotion (CLaME), New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
| | - Alan Turry
- Department of Music and Performing Arts Professions, Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Nordoff-Robbins Center for Music Therapy, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
| | - Robert Codio
- Music and Audio Research Lab, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Nordoff-Robbins Center for Music Therapy, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
| | - Preeti Raghavan
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation and Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21287, USA
| | - Heidi Schambra
- New York University Grossman School of Medicine, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Gerald T Voelbel
- Rehabilitation Sciences Program, Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Department of Occupational Therapy, Steinhardt School of Culture, Education, and Human Development, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Center of Health and Rehabilitation Research, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Rusk Rehabilitation, NYU Langone Health, New York, NY, 10016, USA
| | - Pablo Ripollés
- Department of Psychology, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA.
- Music and Audio Research Lab, New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA.
- Center for Language, Music, and Emotion (CLaME), New York University, New York, NY, 10003, USA.
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Bundt C, Huster RJ. Corticospinal excitability reductions during action preparation and action stopping in humans: Different sides of the same inhibitory coin? Neuropsychologia 2024; 195:108799. [PMID: 38218313 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2024.108799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 01/15/2024]
Abstract
Motor functions and cognitive processes are closely associated with each other. In humans, this linkage is reflected in motor system state changes both when an action must be prepared and stopped. Single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation showed that both action preparation and action stopping are accompanied by a reduction of corticospinal excitability, referred to as preparatory and response inhibition, respectively. While previous efforts have been made to describe both phenomena extensively, an updated and comprehensive comparison of the two phenomena is lacking. To ameliorate such deficit, this review focuses on the role and interpretation of single-coil (single-pulse and paired-pulse) and dual-coil TMS outcome measures during action preparation and action stopping in humans. To that effect, it aims to identify commonalities and differences, detailing how TMS-based outcome measures are affected by states, traits, and psychopathologies in both processes. Eventually, findings will be compared, and open questions will be addressed to aid future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Bundt
- Multimodal Imaging and Cognitive Control Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Cognitive and Translational Neuroscience Cluster, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
| | - René J Huster
- Multimodal Imaging and Cognitive Control Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway; Cognitive and Translational Neuroscience Cluster, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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Hamel R, Pearson J, Sifi L, Patel D, Hinder MR, Jenkinson N, Galea JM. The intracortical excitability changes underlying the enhancing effects of rewards and punishments on motor performance. Brain Stimul 2023; 16:1462-1475. [PMID: 37777109 DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2023.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Monetary rewards and punishments enhance motor performance and are associated with corticospinal excitability (CSE) increases within the motor cortex (M1) during movement preparation. However, such CSE changes have unclear origins. Based on converging evidence, one possibility is that they stem from increased glutamatergic (GLUTergic) facilitation and/or decreased type A gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABAA)-mediated inhibition within M1. To investigate this, paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation was used over the left M1 to evaluate intracortical facilitation (ICF) and short intracortical inhibition (SICI), indirect assays of GLUTergic activity and GABAA-mediated inhibition, in an index finger muscle during the preparation of sequences initiated by either the right index or little finger. Behaviourally, rewards and punishments enhanced both reaction and movement time. During movement preparation, regardless of rewards or punishments, ICF increased when the index finger initiated sequences, whereas SICI decreased when both the index and little fingers initiated sequences. This finding suggests that GLUTergic activity increases in a finger-specific manner whilst GABAA-mediated inhibition decreases in a finger-unspecific manner during preparation. In parallel, both rewards and punishments non-specifically increased ICF, but only rewards non-specifically decreased SICI as compared to neutral. This suggests that to enhance performance rewards both increase GLUTergic activity and decrease GABAA-mediated inhibition, whereas punishments selectively increase GLUTergic activity. A control experiment revealed that such changes were not observed post-movement as participants processed reward and punishment feedback, indicating they were selective to movement preparation. Collectively, these results map the intracortical excitability changes in M1 by which incentives enhance motor performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Hamel
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom; School of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom.
| | - J Pearson
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - L Sifi
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - D Patel
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - M R Hinder
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
| | - N Jenkinson
- School of Sport, Exercise, and Rehabilitation, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom
| | - J M Galea
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, B15 2TT, United Kingdom
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Brietzke C, Cesario JCS, Hettinga FJ, Pires FO. The reward for placebos: mechanisms underpinning placebo-induced effects on motor performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 2022; 122:2321-2329. [PMID: 36006479 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-05029-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Different from the most popular thinking, the placebo effect is not a purely psychological phenomenon. A body of knowledge from multidisciplinary fields has shown that the expectation of a potential benefit when receiving a treatment induces a cascade of neurochemical-electrophysiological alterations in brain reward areas, including motor-related ones. Alterations in the dopamine, opioid, and glutamate metabolism are the neural representation converting reward-derived declarative forms into an attractive and wanted behavior, thereby changing the activation in reward subcortical and cortical structures involved in motor planning, motor execution, and emotional-cognitive attributes of decision-making. We propose that the expectation of receiving a treatment that is beneficial to motor performance triggers a cascade of activations in brain reward areas that travels from motor planning and motor command areas, passing through corticospinal pathways until driving the skeletal muscles, therefore facilitating the motor performance. Although alternative explanations cannot be totally ruled out, this mechanistic route is robust in explaining the results of placebo-induced effects on motor performance and could lead to novel insights and applications in the exercise sciences. Factors such as sex differences in reward-related mechanisms and aversion-induced nocebo effects should also be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cayque Brietzke
- Exercise Psychophysiology Research Group, School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.,Human Movement Science and Rehabilitation Program, Federal University of São Paulo, Santos, Brazil
| | - Julio Cesar Silva Cesario
- Exercise Psychophysiology Research Group, School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Flavio Oliveira Pires
- Exercise Psychophysiology Research Group, School of Arts, Sciences and Humanities, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil. .,Human Movement Science and Rehabilitation Program, Federal University of São Paulo, Santos, Brazil. .,Rehabilitation Sciences Program, Faculty of Medicine, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
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Fiori F, Ciricugno A, Rusconi ML, Slaby RJ, Cattaneo Z. How Untidiness Moves the Motor System. Percept Mot Skills 2022; 129:399-414. [PMID: 35440258 DOI: 10.1177/00315125221086254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Humans tend to prefer order to disorder. Orderly environments may provide individuals with comfort due to predictability, allowing a more efficient interaction with objects. Accordingly, a disorderly environment may elicit a tendency to restore order. This order restoration tendency may be observed physiologically as modulation within corticospinal excitability; the latter has been previously associated with motor preparation. To test these hypothesized physiological indices of order restoration, we measured possible changes in corticospinal excitability, as reflected by the amplitude of motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) elicited by single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over the primary motor cortex while participants viewed ordered and disordered rooms. We found that images depicting disorderly environments suppressed excitability within the corticospinal tract, in line with prior findings that motor preparation is typically associated with decreased corticospinal excitability. Interestingly, this pattern was particularly evident in individuals that displayed subclinical levels of obsessive-compulsive traits. Thus, a disorderly environment may move the motor system to restore a disorderly environment into a more orderly and predictable environment, and preparation for "order" may be observed on a sensorimotor basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Fiori
- Department of Psychology, 9305University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy.,Department of Medicine, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Rome, Italy
| | | | - Maria Luisa Rusconi
- Department of Human and Social Sciences, 18953University of Bergamo, Bergamo, Italy
| | - Ryan J Slaby
- Department of Psychology, 9305University of Milano-Bicocca, Milano, Italy
| | - Zaira Cattaneo
- IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Pavia, Italy.,Department of Human and Social Sciences, 18953University of Bergamo, Bergamo, Italy
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Puri R, Hinder MR. Response bias reveals the role of interhemispheric inhibitory networks in movement preparation and execution. Neuropsychologia 2021; 165:108120. [PMID: 34915037 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2021.108120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2021] [Revised: 11/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/13/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Human movement is influenced by various cognitive processes, such as bias, that dynamically shape competing movement representations. However, the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the effects of bias on movement selection across the lifespan remains poorly understood. Healthy young (n = 21) and older (n = 20) adults completed a choice reaction-time task necessitating left- or right-hand responses to imperative stimuli (IS). Response bias was manipulated via a cue that informed participants a particular response was 70% likely (i.e., the IS was either congruent, or incongruent, with the cue); biasing was either fixed for blocks of trials (block-wise bias) or varied from trial-to-trial (trial-wise bias). As well as assessing the behavioural manifestations of bias, we used transcranial magnetic stimulation to determine changes in corticospinal excitability (CSE) and short- and long-interval interhemispheric inhibition (SIHI, LIHI) during movement preparation and execution. Participants responded more quickly, and accurately, in congruent compared to incongruent trials. CSE decreases occurred in both hands following the cue, consistent with the 'inhibition for impulse control' hypothesis of preparatory inhibition. In contrast, IHI modulations occurred in a hand-specific manner. Greater SIHI was observed during movement preparation in the hand biased away from, compared to the hand biased towards, the cue; furthermore, greater SIHI was observed during movement execution in the hand biased towards the cue when it was not required to respond (i.e., incongruent trial) compared to when it was required to respond (congruent trial). Additionally, during the movement preparation period, the LIHI ratio of the hand biased towards, compared to the hand biased away from, the cue was greatest when the cue varied trial-by-trial. Overall, the IHI results provide support for the 'inhibition for competition resolution' hypothesis, with hand specific modulation of inhibition during movement preparation and execution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rohan Puri
- Sensorimotor Neuroscience and Ageing Research Group, School of Psychological Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia.
| | - Mark R Hinder
- Sensorimotor Neuroscience and Ageing Research Group, School of Psychological Sciences, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
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Bundt C, Boehler CN, Verbruggen F, Brass M, Notebaert W. Reward does not modulate corticospinal excitability in anticipation of a Stroop trial. Eur J Neurosci 2020; 53:1019-1028. [PMID: 33222331 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2020] [Revised: 11/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Action preparation is associated with a transient decrease of corticospinal excitability just before target onset. We have previously shown that the prospect of reward modulates preparatory corticospinal excitability in a Simon task. While the conflict in the Simon task strongly implicates the motor system, it is unknown whether reward prospect modulates preparatory corticospinal excitability in tasks that implicate the motor system less directly. To that effect, we examined reward-modulated preparatory corticospinal excitability in the Stroop task. We administered a rewarded cue-target delay paradigm using Stroop stimuli that afforded a left or right index finger response. Single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation was administered over the left primary motor cortex and electromyography was obtained from the right first dorsal interosseous muscle. In line with previous findings, there was a preparatory decrease in corticospinal excitability during the delay period. In contrast to our previous study using the Simon task, preparatory corticospinal excitability was not modulated by reward. Our results indicate that reward-modulated changes in the motor system depend on specific task-demands, possibly related to varying degrees of motor conflict.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Bundt
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.,Multimodal Imaging and Cognitive Control Lab, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.,Cognitive and Translational Neuroscience Cluster, Department of Psychology, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Carsten N Boehler
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Marcel Brass
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Wim Notebaert
- Department of Experimental Psychology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Fiori F, Plow E, Rusconi ML, Cattaneo Z. Modulation of corticospinal excitability during paintings viewing: A TMS study. Neuropsychologia 2020; 149:107664. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2020.107664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2020] [Revised: 08/09/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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