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Rostam-Abadi Y, Gholami J, Amin-Esmaeili M, Safarcherati A, Mojtabai R, Ghadirzadeh MR, Rahimi H, Rahimi-Movaghar A. Tramadol use and public health consequences in Iran: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Addiction 2020; 115:2213-2242. [PMID: 32196801 DOI: 10.1111/add.15059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Revised: 11/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Misuse of tramadol, an opioid prescription analgesic, is known as a public health challenge globally. We aimed to systematically review studies on the prevalence of non-prescribed use, regular tramadol use and dependence, tramadol-induced poisoning and mortality in Iran. METHODS Consistent with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, international (Medline, Scopus, Web of Science) and Persian (SID) databases were systematically searched up to June 2019. Other relevant data were collected through personal contacts and review of reference lists. Pooled estimates of prevalence of tramadol use in subgroups of males and females, percentage of tramadol poisoning among admitted poisoning cases, tramadol-associated seizures and mortality among tramadol poisonings and percentage of tramadol as a cause of death among fatal drug-poisoning records were estimated through a random-effects model. RESULTS A total of 84 records were included. Pooled estimates of last 12-month use of tramadol in the Iranian general population were 4.9% [95% confidence interval (CI) = 4.1-5.9] and 0.8% (95% CI = 0.2-1.8) among males and females, respectively. The estimates for last 12-month use among Iranian male and female university students were 4.8% (95% CI = 1.9-8.9) and 0.7% (95% CI = 0.3-1.1), respectively. Six heterogeneous reports indicated the existence of regular use of tramadol and dependence in Iran. Sixty-two studies provided data on tramadol-induced poisoning, seizures and mortality. The pooled estimate of the percentage of tramadol poisoning among all drug-poisoning patients was 13.1% (95% CI = 5.7-22.9). The overall estimates of seizures and mortality among tramadol-poisoning patients were 34.6% (95% CI = 29.6-39.8) and 0.7% (95% CI = 0.0-1.9), respectively. The pooled percentage of tramadol-related fatalities among drug-poisoned cases was 5.7% (95% CI = 0.5-15.4). CONCLUSION Despite control policies, tramadol use is as prevalent as the use of illicit opioids in Iran. Numerous cases of tramadol abuse, dependence, poisonings, seizures and hundreds of tramadol-related deaths have been reported in recent years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasna Rostam-Abadi
- Iranian National Center for Addiction Studies (INCAS), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Jaleh Gholami
- Iranian National Center for Addiction Studies (INCAS), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Masoumeh Amin-Esmaeili
- Iranian National Center for Addiction Studies (INCAS), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Mental Health, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Anousheh Safarcherati
- Iranian National Center for Addiction Studies (INCAS), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ramin Mojtabai
- Department of Mental Health, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | | | - Hosein Rahimi
- Division of Pharmaceuticals and Narcotics Affairs, Ministry of Health, Tehran, Iran
| | - Afarin Rahimi-Movaghar
- Iranian National Center for Addiction Studies (INCAS), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Zhuo Y, Xiang P, Wu J, Wang X. Segmental hair analysis for flunitrazepam and 7-aminoflunitrazepam in users: a comparison to existing literature. Forensic Sci Res 2020; 7:299-307. [PMID: 35784426 PMCID: PMC9245979 DOI: 10.1080/20961790.2020.1824600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022] Open
Abstract
The availability of more quantitative data on flunitrazepam (FLU) and 7-aminoflunitrazepam (7AF) would aid in obtaining a better understanding of the interpretation of FLU concentrations in human hair. The purpose of this study was to provide concentrations of FLU and 7AF in hair segments of 22 FLU users. Quantitative data regarding hair concentrations of FLU and 7AF from various types of cases were also reviewed to give a comprehensive overview of the comparability of different studies. Three to six 1 cm segments of scalp hair from 22 FLU users were analyzed by a liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) method. FLU and its metabolite were confirmed in the hair segments from all cases. Concentrations of FLU and 7AF in the segments ranged from 0.01–0.16 ng/mg (median of 0.03) and 0.01–0.34 ng/mg (median of 0.09), respectively. Most cases had FLU and 7AF distributions along the hair segments that were suggestive of repeated drug use. A summary of the published concentrations gives valuable data and can assist forensic investigators in their estimations of drug use history and patterns.Key points A method using LC–MS/MS to quantify flunitrazepam and its metabolite was described. Segmental analysis of flunitrazepam and its metabolite in human hair was reported. A comprehensive overview of quantitative data was given.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Zhuo
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ping Xiang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jingjie Wu
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, China
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Guizhou Police College, Guiyang, China
| | - Xin Wang
- Department of Forensic Toxicology, Academy of Forensic Science, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine, Shanghai, China
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Abstract
Purpose
Internet use has changed the mechanics of drug dealing. Although this has spurred some initial academic interest in how markets and their users have been changing, the issue is still under-researched. The purpose of this paper is to understand how the organisation of the distribution of prescription drugs and other illegal drugs overlap in these online markets by analysing data gathered from observation of the Swedish Facebook drug market and its participants.
Design/methodology/approach
Data were gathered during three months of digital ethnography conducted among Swedish Facebook posters supplemented by 25 interviews with sellers (20) and buyers (5). Screenshots and interview data were coded by carrying out an NVivo-based content analysis. The analysis is based on descriptive statistics of drug types, co-occurrence with other drugs, group size and the demographic characteristics of sellers. Additionally, the interviewees’ descriptions of the marketplace and their drug dealing or buying activities were included in the analysis.
Findings
In total, 57 Swedish Facebook groups that sold illegal substances were located. The groups rarely specialised in specific drug types, but were convened around demographic factors, such as specific cities and locales. The sales of prescription drugs were part of the overall activity of groups selling other illegal drugs, but they were more often sold in separate Facebook posts, possibly by specialist sellers. Swedish Facebook sales primarily concerned alprazolam, tramadol, pregabalin and clonazepam, and were sold by both professional and amateur sellers.
Originality/value
This study reports findings from a Nordic comparative study on social media drug dealing, representing the first in-depth study of digitally mediated prescription drug dealing outside of cryptomarkets.
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Ali T, Rafiq M, Samee Mubarik M, Zahoor K, Asad F, Yaqoob S, Ahmad S, Qamar S. Genotoxicity and repair capability of Mus musculus DNA following the oral exposure to Tramadol. Saudi J Biol Sci 2020; 27:12-17. [PMID: 31889811 PMCID: PMC6933236 DOI: 10.1016/j.sjbs.2019.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Revised: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Tramadol is an analgesic and psychoactive drug that acts primarily upon the central nervous system where it alters brain function, resulting in temporary changes in perception, mood, consciousness and behavior. The aim of present study was to analyze the genotoxicity and repair capability of DNA after Tramadol exposure in albino mice (Mus musculus). For this purpose, forty mice were divided equally into four groups as; a control group (without drug) and three treatment groups that were treated with three doses of Tramadol as minimum dose group, Intermediate dose group and maximum dose group, corresponding to 25 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg and 75 mg/kg of body weight respectively. The dose was given orally for 15 days. After 15 days peripheral blood was drawn from half mice of each group and subjected to comet assay. While the remaining half mice were given a recovery period of 15 days and same procedure was used for blood collection and comet assay. Significant difference in various comet parameters was observed among control and exposed groups. Maximum damage was observed at highest concentration 75 mg/kg of Tramadol and minimum damage was observed at dose 25 mg/kg of Tramadol, while results of repaired mice group showed that repair capability of Tramadol was minor and recovery of Tramadol required a lot of time. It can be concluded that Tramadol cause genotoxicity that is dose dependent and has low repair capability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tayyaba Ali
- Department of Zoology, Government College University, Allama Iqbal Road, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Samina Qamar
- Department of Zoology, Government College University, Allama Iqbal Road, Faisalabad, Pakistan
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Affiliation(s)
- Maude Marillier
- Department of Continuing Education of the Faculty of Medicine Lille University Lille France
| | - Alain G. Verstraete
- Department of Diagnostic Sciences Ghent University Ghent Belgium
- Department of Laboratory Medicine Ghent University Hospital Ghent Belgium
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Alcañiz M, Guillen M, Santolino M. Prevalence of drug use among drivers based on mandatory, random tests in a roadside survey. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0199302. [PMID: 29920542 PMCID: PMC6007923 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0199302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In the context of road safety, this study aims to examine the prevalence of drug use in a random sample of drivers. Methods A stratified probabilistic sample was designed to represent vehicles circulating on non-urban roads. Random drug tests were performed during autumn 2014 on 521 drivers in Catalonia (Spain). Participation was mandatory. The prevalence of drug driving for cannabis, methamphetamines, amphetamines, cocaine, opiates and benzodiazepines was assessed. Results The overall prevalence of drug use is 16.4% (95% CI: 13.9; 18.9) and affects primarily younger male drivers. Drug use is similarly prevalent during weekdays and on weekends, but increases with the number of occupants. The likelihood of being positive for methamphetamines is significantly higher for drivers of vans and lorries. Conclusions Different patterns of use are detected depending on the drug considered. Preventive drug tests should not only be conducted on weekends and at night-time, and need to be reinforced for drivers of commercial vehicles. Active educational campaigns should focus on the youngest age-group of male drivers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manuela Alcañiz
- Department of Econometrics, Riskcenter-IREA, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Montserrat Guillen
- Department of Econometrics, Riskcenter-IREA, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Miguel Santolino
- Department of Econometrics, Riskcenter-IREA, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- * E-mail:
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Forsman J, Taipale H, Masterman T, Tiihonen J, Tanskanen A. Comparison of dispensed medications and forensic-toxicological findings to assess pharmacotherapy in the Swedish population 2006 to 2013. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2018; 27:1112-1122. [DOI: 10.1002/pds.4426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Revised: 02/02/2018] [Accepted: 02/19/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Forsman
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience; Karolinska Institutet; Stockholm Sweden
| | - Heidi Taipale
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience; Karolinska Institutet; Stockholm Sweden
- School of Pharmacy; University of Eastern Finland; Kuopio Finland
| | - Thomas Masterman
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience; Karolinska Institutet; Stockholm Sweden
| | - Jari Tiihonen
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience; Karolinska Institutet; Stockholm Sweden
- Department of Forensic Psychiatry; Niuvanniemi Hospital; Kuopio Finland
| | - Antti Tanskanen
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience; Karolinska Institutet; Stockholm Sweden
- Department of Forensic Psychiatry; Niuvanniemi Hospital; Kuopio Finland
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Olsson MO, Öjehagen A, Brådvik L, Kronstrand R, Håkansson A. High Rates of Tramadol Use among Treatment-Seeking Adolescents in Malmö, Sweden: A Study of Hair Analysis of Nonmedical Prescription Opioid Use. J Addict 2017; 2017:6716929. [PMID: 29435382 DOI: 10.1155/2017/6716929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Background Nonmedical prescription opioid use (NMPOU) is a growing problem and tramadol has been suggested as an emerging problem in young treatment-seeking individuals. The aim of the present study was to investigate, through hair analysis, NMPOU in this group and, specifically, tramadol use. Methods In a study including 73 treatment-seeking adolescents and young adults at an outpatient facility for young substance users, hair specimens could be obtained from 59 subjects. Data were extracted on sociodemographic background variables and psychiatric diagnoses through MINI interviews. Results In hair analysis, tramadol was by far the most prevalent opioid detected. Thirty-two percent screened positive for opioids, and of those, all but one were positive for tramadol. Ninety-eight percent reported problematic cannabis use. Significantly more opioid-positive patients also screened positive for other (noncannabis) drugs, compared to nonopioid users. Sixty-four percent fulfilled criteria of DSM-IV psychiatric disorders, other than substance use disorders according to MINI. Fifty-three percent met the symptom criteria count of ADHD above cut-off level. Conclusion In the present setting, tramadol, along with high rates of cannabis use, may represent a novel pattern of substance use among young treatment-seeking subjects with problematic substance use and high rates of concurrent psychiatric problems.
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Valen A, Bogstrand ST, Vindenes V, Gjerde H. Toxicological findings in suspected drug-impaired drivers in Norway — Trends during 1990–2015. Forensic Sci Int 2017; 280:15-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2017] [Revised: 09/03/2017] [Accepted: 09/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Domingo-salvany A, Herrero MJ, Fernandez B, Perez J, del Real P, González-luque JC, de la Torre R. Prevalence of psychoactive substances, alcohol and illicit drugs, in Spanish drivers: A roadside study in 2015. Forensic Sci Int 2017; 278:253-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2017.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Revised: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 07/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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El-Hamid Mohamed Elwy A, Tabl G. Impact of tramadol and morphine abuse on the activities of acetylcholine esterase, Na+/K+-ATPase and related parameters in cerebral cortices of male adult rats. Electron Physician 2017; 9:4027-4034. [PMID: 28461881 PMCID: PMC5407239 DOI: 10.19082/4027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Objective To determine the effect of the most commonly abused drugs (tramadol and morphine), on acetylcholine esterase (AChE), Na+/K+-ATPase activities and related parameters, Na+ and K+ as biomarkers of neurotoxicity. Methods Tramadol - as a weak μ opioid receptor agonist- and morphine - as opiate analgesic drugs, were chosen for the present study. Four series of experimental animals were conducted for either tramadol or morphine: control series; repeated single equal doses (therapeutic dose) series; cumulative increasing doses series and delay (withdrawal) series (96 hours withdrawal period after last administration), at time period intervals 7, 14 and 21 days. Acetylcholine esterase (AChE), Na+/K+-ATPase activities and related parameters, Na+ and K+ were measured in cerebral cortices of experimental rats. Results Acetylcholine esterase (AChE) activity in the brain cerebral cortex increased after the administration of therapeutic repeated doses of either tramadol (20 mg/kg b.w.) or morphine (4 mg/kg b.w.) in different groups. The daily intraperitoneal injection of cumulative increasing dose levels of either tramadol 20, 40 and 80 mg/kg or morphine 4, 8 and 12 mg/kg revealed a significant increase in the mean of acetylcholine esterase activities. The withdrawal groups of either tramadol or morphine showed significant decreases in their levels. Na+/K+ ATPase activity in the brain cerebral cortex of either repeated therapeutic doses of tramadol (20 mg/kg) or morphine repeated therapeutic doses (4 mg/kg) for 21 consecutive days at different intervals 7, 14 and 21 days, induced a significant decrease in the levels of Na+/K+-ATPase in all groups. Withdrawal groups showed a significant decrease in Na+/K+-ATPase level. Furthermore, the daily intraperitoneal injection of cumulative increasing dose levels of either tramadol (20, 40 and 80 mg/kg b.w.) or morphine (4, 8 and 12 mg/kg b.w.) induced significant decreases in Na+/K+-ATPase levels in all studied groups. Regarding Na+ and K+, concentrations of either repeated therapeutic doses or cumulative increasing doses at different time intervals, showed different fluctuations in their levels. Conclusion The recorded data suggest that both drugs exert potent effects on AChE and Na+/K+-ATPase activities which could contribute to cerebral cortex malfunction including, memory deficits and the decline in cognitive function observed in chronic users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abd El-Hamid Mohamed Elwy
- Ph.D., Assistant Professor, Forensic Medicine and Clinical Toxicology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Tanta University, Tanta city-Gharbia Governorate- Egypt
| | - Ghada Tabl
- Ph.D., Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Tanta University, Tanta city-Gharbia Governorate-Egypt
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Abdel-Salam OME, Youness ER, Khadrawy YA, Sleem AA. Acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase and paraoxonase 1 activities in rats treated with cannabis, tramadol or both. ASIAN PAC J TROP MED 2016; 9:1089-1094. [PMID: 27890370 DOI: 10.1016/j.apjtm.2016.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2016] [Revised: 08/20/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To investigate the effect of Cannabis sativa resin and/or tramadol, two commonly drugs of abuse on acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase activities as a possible cholinergic biomarkers of neurotoxicity induced by these agents. METHODS Rats were treated with cannabis resin (5, 10 or 20 mg/kg) (equivalent to the active constituent Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol), tramadol (5, 10 and 20 mg/kg) or tramadol (10 mg/kg) combined with cannabis resin (5, 10 and 20 mg/kg) subcutaneously daily for 6 weeks. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) activities were measured in brain and serum. We also measured the activity of paraoxonase-1 (PON1) in serum of rats treated with these agents. RESULTS (i) AChE activity in brain increased after 10-20 mg/kg cannabis resin (by 16.3-36.5%). AChE activity in brain did not change after treatment with 5-20 mg/kg tramadol. The administration of both cannabis resin (5, 10 or 20 mg/kg) and tramadol (10 mg/kg) resulted in decreased brain AChE activity by 14.1%, 12.9% and 13.6%, respectively; (ii) BChE activity in serum was markedly and dose-dependently inhibited by cannabis resin (by 60.9-76.9%). BChE activity also decreased by 17.6-36.5% by 10-20 mg/kg tramadol and by 57.2-63.9% by the cannabis resin/tramadol combined treatment; (iii) Cannabis resin at doses of 20 mg/kg increased serum PON1 activity by 25.7%. In contrast, tramadol given at 5, 10 and 20 mg/kg resulted in a dose-dependent decrease in serum PON1 activity by 19%, 36.7%, and 46.1%, respectively. Meanwhile, treatment with cannabis resin plus tramadol resulted in 40.2%, 35.8%, 30.7% inhibition of PON1 activity compared to the saline group. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that cannabis resin exerts different effects on AChE and BChE activities which could contribute to the memory problems and the decline in cognitive function in chronic users.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eman R Youness
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | | | - Amany A Sleem
- Department of Pharmacology, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
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