Sweet babies: chocolate consumption during pregnancy and infant temperament at six months

Does early child negative emotionality moderate the association between maternal stimulation and academic readiness and achievement?

We investigated whether child temperament (negative emotionality, 5 months) moderated the association between maternal stimulation (5 months-2½ years) and academic readiness and achievement (vocabulary, mathematics, and reading). We applied structural equation modeling to the data from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Child Development (N = 1121-1448; mostly Whites; 47% girls). Compared to children with low negative emotionality, those with high negative emotionality had higher levels of academic readiness (6 years) and mathematics achievement (7 years) when exposed to high levels of maternal stimulation (β = 3.17, p < .01 and β = 2.91, p < .01, respectively). The results support the differential susceptibility model whereby highly emotionally negative children were more susceptible to the influences of low and high levels of maternal stimulation in academic readiness and mathematics achievement's developments.

Associations between antenatal maternal diet and other health aspects with infant temperament in a large multiethnic cohort study: a path analysis approach

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to assess the association of antenatal maternal dietary patterns (DPs) and other health aspects with infant temperament in a large multiethnic cohort, taking maternal personality and prenatal stress into account.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Using data from 3968 children born in 2009/2010 and their mothers from the Growing Up in New Zealand cohort, infant temperament was assessed at 9 months using the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised Very Short Form. Maternal antenatal diet and other health aspects were assessed antenatally. Maternal DPs (n=4) were derived using principal components analysis based on food intake reported on a 44-item food frequency questionnaire. Path analyses investigated factors associated with infant temperament, namely maternal personality, prenatal maternal stress, DPs and other health aspects, including potential inter-relations and mediating effects.

RESULTS

Women who scored higher in the fusion DP (standardised beta (β)=0.05; 95% CI 0.02 to 0.09) and healthy DP (β=0.05; 95% CI 0.02 to 0.09), who exercised more (β=0.04; 95% CI 0.01 to 0.07), and who drank less alcohol (β=-0.05; 95% CI -0.08 to -0.02) were more likely to have infants with an overall less difficult temperament. Sex-specific differences were found in the associations between maternal DP and infant temperament. Maternal personality and prenatal stress were significantly associated with all dimensions of infant temperament. The strongest predictors for a more difficult temperament were prenatal stress (β=0.12; 95% CI 0.08 to 0.15) and the personality dimensions neuroticism (β=0.10; 95% CI 0.07 to 0.14) and extraversion (β=-0.09; 95% CI -0.12 to -0.06).

CONCLUSIONS

Associations of antenatal maternal diet and health aspects with infant temperament were statistically significant but small. While they should not be overinterpreted as being deterministic, the findings of this study support the link between maternal modifiable health-related behaviours and infant temperament outcomes.

Prenatal and Intrapartum Factors Associated With Infant Temperament: A Systematic Review

Background: Temperament involves individual variations in behavioural tendencies of emotional responses and reactions to stimuli after birth. Because 'foetal programming' is a strong hypothesis in developing temperament, prenatal and intrapartum factors may be significant determinants of infant temperament. This systematic literature review aims to elucidate the evidence of prenatal and intrapartum predictors, including genetic, biological, environmental, socio-demographic, psychological, and obstetric factors of parents and their child. Methods: Relevant articles were searched using MEDLINE, PubMed, and SCOPUS. The inclusion criteria were (a) original research article, (b) written in English, (c) assessed the temperament of infants 12 months old or younger as an outcome variable, and (d) investigated prenatal and intrapartum factorial variables of infant temperament. Following the PRISMA guideline, the articles found in the three databases were screened and selected according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria before the final review. Results: Finally, 35 articles were reviewed. This systematic review identified a variety of prenatal and intrapartum factors that were significantly associated with infant temperament: (1) genetic and biological factors: certain genotypes, maternal cortisol and ACTH, and CRHs, (2) environmental factors: substance use such as tobacco, alcohol, and illegal drugs, (3) socio-demographic factor: lower-income, (4) psychological factors: depression or anxiety, eating disorders, personality types of mothers, and domestic violence, and (5) obstetric factors: foetal growth (birth weight), hypertension in mothers, nausea (emesis), and preterm birth. Conclusion: The findings support gene-environment interaction and biological mechanisms for developing infant temperament, suggesting the importance of ensuring a safe and comfortable environment for pregnant mothers, unborn infants, and families during pregnancy and delivery.

Factors that increase reactivity during fetal nonstress testing

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The most common method of antepartum fetal surveillance is the nonstress test (NST). Although it has satisfactory false-negative rates, dubious nonreactive results may challenge the physician. Any method or factor increasing the reactive NST results or shortening the time to attain a reactive test may be considerably useful.

RECENT FINDINGS

Most of the studies have found no effect of maternal glucose administration on fetal heart rate and fetal activity, specificity of NST, time to reactivity and percentage of reactive NST results when compared with the control group. Maternal intake of 70% cocoa or caffeine had stimulating action on the fetal reactivity, and this effect on the fetal heart rate was more marked with high concentrations of cocoa (80%). Studies on maternal positioning during NST had equivocal results. Fetal manipulation has no impact on the NST reactivity. Vibroacoustic and halogen light stimulation may be associated with a reduction in time to reactivity.

SUMMARY

These methods may increase the reactivity during a NST and may facilitate the antenatal fetal surveillance.

Postnatal maternal cortisol levels predict temperament in healthy breastfed infants

BACKGROUND

The implications of the biologically active elements in breast milk for the breastfed infant are largely unknown. Animal models suggest that ingestion of glucocorticoids during the neonatal period influences fear behavior and modifies brain development.

AIMS

To determine the association between postnatal maternal cortisol levels and temperament in breastfed infants.

STUDY DESIGN

The relation between maternal cortisol and infant temperament was examined in breastfed and formula-fed infants. Plasma cortisol was used as a surrogate measure for breast milk cortisol levels (plasma and milk levels are correlated in the 0.6 to 0.7 range; [Patacchioli FR, Cigliana G, Cilumbriello A, Perrone G, Capri O, Alemà GS, et al. Maternal plasma and milk free cortisol during the first 3 days of breast-feeding following spontaneous delivery or elective cesarean section. Gynecologic and Obstetric Investigations 1992;34:159-163.]. If exposure to elevated cortisol levels during infancy influences temperament, then a relation between the two should be found among the breastfed infants, but not among the formula-fed infants.

SUBJECTS

Two hundred fifty-three two-month-old infants and their mothers.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Fearful temperament assessed with the Infant Behavior Questionnaire [Garstein MR, Rothbart MK. Studying infant temperament via the revised infant behavior questionnaire. Infant Behavior and Development 2003;26:64-86].

RESULTS

Among the breastfed infants, higher maternal cortisol levels were associated with reports of increased infant fear behavior (partial r=0.2; p<0.01). This relation did not exist among the formula-fed infants. Negative maternal affect at the time of assessment did not account for the positive association in the breastfed group.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings are consistent with our proposal that exposure to cortisol in breast milk influences infant temperament. Biologically active components in breast milk may represent one avenue through which the mother shapes the development of the human infant during the postnatal period.