Placement of a take-out container during meal influences energy intake

A systematic review and meta-analysis of visual cues and primes for nudging consumption-related behaviours

Healthy diets are crucial for maintaining overall well-being and reducing risk of health complications. Visual cues and primes are popular implicit nudging techniques for promoting healthier consumption habits. The present review and meta-analysis was conducted and reported according to PRISMA guidelines. It aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of these cues and primes for nudging consumption-related behaviours. Six electronic databases were comprehensively searched for experimental studies on the use of non-marketing-based visual cues/primes on food/beverage consumption. Sixty-six studies from 52 articles were included, resulting in 205 comparisons categorised into seven groups for separate analyses: (1) healthy food- and (2) body-related nudges, and (3) unhealthy food- and (4) body-related nudges, versus neutral controls; (5) mixed-health food- and (6) body-related comparisons; and (7) nudges not inherently health-related. Overall, nudges effectively influenced consumption-related behaviours. Healthier food- and body-nudges encouraged healthier behaviours relative to neutral controls and less healthy nudges, and unhealthy food-nudges, relative to neutral controls. Non-health-related nudges influenced behaviours in the expected direction, relative to comparison/control conditions. Nudge effectiveness, especially for unhealthy food-nudges, was moderated by participant age and weight, nudge timing (prime/cue) outcome measure (intake/choice), health (mixed/healthy/unhealthy), and whether the outcome was real or hypothetical. A range of participant, nudge, and outcome-related mechanisms proposed to underlie nudge effectiveness were also identified. Findings supported the efficacy of visual cues and primes for eliciting changes in consumption-related behaviours, indicating they may be effective for encouraging healthier consumption, when the right nudges are used. Results also indicated that different forms of nudges may be more appropriate in different circumstances (e.g., for different types of participants or food-related outcomes). Further research is needed to thoroughly comprehend the mechanisms underlying these nudges and their effectiveness.

Doggy bags and downsizing: Packaging uneaten food to go after a meal attenuates the portion size effect in women

Serving larger portions leads to increased food and energy intake, but little is known about strategies to moderate this response. This study tested how the effect of portion size on meal intake was influenced by providing the option to take away uneaten food in a "doggy bag" (to-go container). Women were randomly assigned to one of two subject groups: a To-Go Group (n = 27) that was informed before each meal that their leftover food would be packaged to take away after the meal, and a Control Group (n = 26) that was not given this option. In a crossover design, subjects came to the lab once a week for four weeks to eat a dinner composed of five foods. Across meals, the portion size of all foods was varied (100%, 125%, 150%, and 175% of baseline). Results showed that the portion size effect, defined as the trajectory of intake across the weight of food served, differed significantly by subject group (P ≤ 0.025). In the Control Group, increasing the portion size of all foods led to substantial increases in intake (P < 0.0001); for every 100 g added to the baseline portion, women in this group consumed an additional mean (±SEM) of 64 ± 12 g of food and 90 ± 19 kcal, until intake leveled off. In contrast, intake of women in the To-Go Group increased by only 17 ± 12 g and 19 ± 18 kcal for every additional 100 g served; these increases did not differ significantly from zero (P > 0.15). Thus, the effect of portion size on intake was attenuated in the To-Go Group compared to the Control Group. These data indicate that packaging uneaten food after a meal could be an effective strategy to reduce overconsumption from large portions.