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Pandey SK, Anand U, Siddiqui WA, Tripathi R. Drug Development Strategies for Malaria: With the Hope for New Antimalarial Drug Discovery—An Update. Adv Med 2023; 2023:5060665. [PMID: 36960081 PMCID: PMC10030226 DOI: 10.1155/2023/5060665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria continued to be a deadly situation for the people of tropical and subtropical countries. Although there has been a marked reduction in new cases as well as mortality and morbidity rates in the last two decades, the reporting of malaria caused 247 million cases and 619000 deaths worldwide in 2021, according to the WHO (2022). The development of drug resistance and declining efficacy against most of the antimalarial drugs/combination in current clinical practice is a big challenge for the scientific community, and in the absence of an effective vaccine, the problem becomes worse. Experts from various research organizations worldwide are continuously working hard to stop this disaster by employing several strategies for the development of new antimalarial drugs/combinations. The current review focuses on the history of antimalarial drug discovery and the advantages, loopholes, and opportunities associated with the common strategies being followed for antimalarial drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swaroop Kumar Pandey
- 1Department of Life Sciences, The National Institute for Biotechnology in the Negev, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Uttpal Anand
- 2Department of Life Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva 84105, Israel
| | - Waseem A. Siddiqui
- 3Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202001, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Renu Tripathi
- 4Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow 226031, Uttar Pradesh, India
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2
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Tremblay T, Bergeron C, Gagnon D, Bérubé C, Voyer N, Richard D, Giguère D. Squaramide Tethered Clindamycin, Chloroquine, and Mortiamide Hybrids: Design, Synthesis, and Antimalarial Activity. ACS Med Chem Lett 2023; 14:217-222. [PMID: 36793432 PMCID: PMC9923836 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.2c00531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria remains one of the major health problems in the world. In this work, a series of squaramide tethered chloroquine, clindamycin, and mortiamide D hybrids have been synthesized to assess their in vitro antiplasmodial activity against 3D7 (chloroquine-sensitive) and Dd2 strains of Plasmodium falciparum. The most active compound, a simple chloroquine analogue, displayed low nanomolar IC50 value against both strains (3 nM for 3D7 strain and 18 nM for Dd2 strain). Moreover, all molecular hybrids incorporating the hydroxychloroquine scaffold showed the most potent activities, exemplified with a chloroquine dimer, IC50 = 31 nM and 81 nM against 3D7 and Dd2 strains, respectively. These results highlight the first time use of clindamycin and mortiamide D as antimalarial molecular hybrids and establish these valuable hits for future optimization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Tremblay
- Département
de Chimie, Université Laval, 1045 Av. de la Médecine, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Catherine Bergeron
- Département
de Chimie, Université Laval, 1045 Av. de la Médecine, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Dominic Gagnon
- Centre
de Recherche du CHU de Québec, Department of Microbiology,
Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Christopher Bérubé
- Département
de Chimie, Université Laval, 1045 Av. de la Médecine, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Normand Voyer
- Département
de Chimie, Université Laval, 1045 Av. de la Médecine, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Dave Richard
- Centre
de Recherche du CHU de Québec, Department of Microbiology,
Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Université Laval, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Denis Giguère
- Département
de Chimie, Université Laval, 1045 Av. de la Médecine, Québec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
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3
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Badran AS, Ibrahim MA. Synthesis, spectral characterization, DFT and in silico ADME studies of the novel pyrido[1,2-a]benzimidazoles and pyrazolo[3,4-b]pyridines. J Mol Struct 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2022.134454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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4
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A. Alshaye N, Ibrahim MA. Recyclization Reactions of 2-Methylchromone-3-Carbonitrile with Active Methylene Nucleophiles: Synthesis and Reactions of 4-Methylchromeno[2,3-b]Pyridines. Polycycl Aromat Compd 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/10406638.2022.2158885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Najla A. Alshaye
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Princess Nourah Bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Magdy A. Ibrahim
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Education, Ain Shams University, Cairo, Egypt
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5
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Structure- and ligand-based drug design methods for the modeling of antimalarial agents: a review of updates from 2012 onwards. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2022; 40:10481-10506. [PMID: 34129805 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2021.1932598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Malaria still persists as one of the deadliest infectious disease having a huge morbidity and mortality affecting the higher population of the world. Structure and ligand-based drug design methods like molecular docking and MD simulations, pharmacophore modeling, QSAR and virtual screening are widely used to perceive the accordant correlation between the antimalarial activity and property of the compounds to design novel dominant and discriminant molecules. These modeling methods will speed-up antimalarial drug discovery, selection of better drug candidates for synthesis and to achieve potent and safer drugs. In this work, we have extensively reviewed the literature pertaining to the use and applications of various ligand and structure-based computational methods for the design of antimalarial agents. Different classes of molecules are discussed along with their target interactions pattern, which is responsible for antimalarial activity. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Vyas VK, Shukla T, Tulsian K, Sharma M, Patel S. Integrated structure-guided computational design of novel substituted quinolizin-4-ones as Plasmodium falciparum dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (PfDHODH) inhibitors. Comput Biol Chem 2022; 101:107787. [DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiolchem.2022.107787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Revised: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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7
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Synthesis of New 1,2,3,4-Tetrahydroquinoline Hybrid of Ibuprofen and Its Biological Evaluation. MOLBANK 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/m1350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Herein we report the obtaining of 1-(3,4-dihydroquinolin-1(2H)-yl)-2- (4-isobutylphenyl)propan-1-one and its characterization. The newly obtained hybrid and its derivatives (hybrids of ibuprofen with 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline, and piperidine) were screened for their in vitro antioxidant, antitryptic, and inhibition of albumin denaturation activity. The lipophilicity was established using both reversed-phase thin layer chromatography and in silico calculations.
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8
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Kingston DGI, Cassera MB. Antimalarial Natural Products. PROGRESS IN THE CHEMISTRY OF ORGANIC NATURAL PRODUCTS 2022; 117:1-106. [PMID: 34977998 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-89873-1_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Natural products have made a crucial and unique contribution to human health, and this is especially true in the case of malaria, where the natural products quinine and artemisinin and their derivatives and analogues, have saved millions of lives. The need for new drugs to treat malaria is still urgent, since the most dangerous malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum, has become resistant to quinine and most of its derivatives and is becoming resistant to artemisinin and its derivatives. This volume begins with a short history of malaria and follows this with a summary of its biology. It then traces the fascinating history of the discovery of quinine for malaria treatment and then describes quinine's biosynthesis, its mechanism of action, and its clinical use, concluding with a discussion of synthetic antimalarial agents based on quinine's structure. The volume then covers the discovery of artemisinin and its development as the source of the most effective current antimalarial drug, including summaries of its synthesis and biosynthesis, its mechanism of action, and its clinical use and resistance. A short discussion of other clinically used antimalarial natural products leads to a detailed treatment of other natural products with significant antiplasmodial activity, classified by compound type. Although the search for new antimalarial natural products from Nature's combinatorial library is challenging, it is very likely to yield new antimalarial drugs. The chapter thus ends by identifying over ten natural products with development potential as clinical antimalarial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- David G I Kingston
- Department of Chemistry and the Virginia Tech Center for Drug Discovery, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, USA.
| | - Maria Belen Cassera
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, and Center for Tropical and Emerging Global Diseases (CTEGD), University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
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Van de Walle T, Cools L, Mangelinckx S, D'hooghe M. Recent contributions of quinolines to antimalarial and anticancer drug discovery research. Eur J Med Chem 2021; 226:113865. [PMID: 34655985 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 09/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Quinoline, a privileged scaffold in medicinal chemistry, has always been associated with a multitude of biological activities. Especially in antimalarial and anticancer research, quinoline played (and still plays) a central role, giving rise to the development of an array of quinoline-containing pharmaceuticals in these therapeutic areas. However, both diseases still affect millions of people every year, pointing to the necessity of new therapies. Quinolines have a long-standing history as antimalarial agents, but established quinoline-containing antimalarial drugs are now facing widespread resistance of the Plasmodium parasite. Nevertheless, as evidenced by a massive number of recent literature contributions, they are still of great value for future developments in this field. On the other hand, the number of currently approved anticancer drugs containing a quinoline scaffold are limited, but a strong increase and interest in quinoline compounds as potential anticancer agents can be seen in the last few years. In this review, a literature overview of recent contributions made by quinoline-containing compounds as potent antimalarial or anticancer agents is provided, covering publications between 2018 and 2020.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Van de Walle
- SynBioC Research Group, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lore Cools
- SynBioC Research Group, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Sven Mangelinckx
- SynBioC Research Group, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Matthias D'hooghe
- SynBioC Research Group, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium.
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10
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Pirahmadi S, Afzali S, Zargar M, Zakeri S, Mehrizi AA. How can we develop an effective subunit vaccine to achieve successful malaria eradication? Microb Pathog 2021; 160:105203. [PMID: 34547408 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2021.105203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Malaria, a mosquito-borne infection, is the most widespread parasitic disease. Despite numerous efforts to eradicate malaria, this disease is still a health concern worldwide. Owing to insecticide-resistant vectors and drug-resistant parasites, available controlling measures are insufficient to achieve a malaria-free world. Thus, there is an urgent need for new intervention tools such as efficient malaria vaccines. Subunit vaccines are the most promising malaria vaccines under development. However, one of the major drawbacks of subunit vaccines is the lack of efficient and durable immune responses including antigen-specific antibody, CD4+, and CD8+ T-cell responses, long-lived plasma cells, memory cells, and functional antibodies for parasite neutralization or inhibition of parasite invasion. These types of responses could be induced by whole organism vaccines, but eliciting these responses with subunit vaccines has been proven to be more challenging. Consequently, subunit vaccines require several policies to overcome these challenges. In this review, we address common approaches that can improve the efficacy of subunit vaccines against malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakineh Pirahmadi
- Malaria and Vector Research Group (MVRG), Biotechnology Research Center (BRC), Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shima Afzali
- Malaria and Vector Research Group (MVRG), Biotechnology Research Center (BRC), Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mostafa Zargar
- Malaria and Vector Research Group (MVRG), Biotechnology Research Center (BRC), Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran
| | - Sedigheh Zakeri
- Malaria and Vector Research Group (MVRG), Biotechnology Research Center (BRC), Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Akram Abouie Mehrizi
- Malaria and Vector Research Group (MVRG), Biotechnology Research Center (BRC), Pasteur Institute of Iran, Tehran, Iran.
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11
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Sharma B, Singh P, Singh AK, Awasthi SK. Advancement of chimeric hybrid drugs to cure malaria infection: An overview with special emphasis on endoperoxide pharmacophores. Eur J Med Chem 2021; 219:113408. [PMID: 33989911 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Emergence and spread of Plasmodium falciparum resistant to artemisinin-based combination therapy has led to a situation of haste in the scientific and pharmaceutical communities. Sincere efforts are redirected towards finding alternative chemotherapeutic agents that are capable of combating multidrug-resistant parasite strains. Extensive research yielded the concept of "Chimeric Bitherapy (CB)" which involves the linking of two molecules with individual pharmacological activity and exhibit dual mode of action into a single hybrid molecule. Current research in this field seems to endorse hybrid molecules as the next-generation antimalarial drugs and are more effective compared to the multi-component drugs because of the lower occurrence of drug-drug adverse effects. This review is an attempt to congregate complete survey on endoperoxide based hybrid antiplasmodial molecules that will give glimpse on the future directions for successful development and discovery of useful antimalarial hybrid drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhawana Sharma
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India
| | - Preeti Singh
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India
| | - Ashawani Kumar Singh
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India
| | - Satish K Awasthi
- Chemical Biology Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Delhi, Delhi 110007, India.
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12
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Frydrych J, Keough DT, Chavchich M, Travis J, Dračínský M, Edstein MD, Guddat LW, Hocková D, Janeba Z. Nucleotide analogues containing a pyrrolidine, piperidine or piperazine ring: Synthesis and evaluation of inhibition of plasmodial and human 6-oxopurine phosphoribosyltransferases and in vitro antimalarial activity. Eur J Med Chem 2021; 219:113416. [PMID: 33887682 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Parasites of the Plasmodium genus are unable to produce purine nucleotides de novo and depend completely on the salvage pathway. This fact makes plasmodial hypoxanthine-guanine-(xanthine) phosphoribosyltransferase [HG(X)PRT] a valuable target for development of antimalarial agents. A series of nucleotide analogues was designed, synthesized and evaluated as potential inhibitors of Plasmodium falciparum HGXPRT, P. vivax HGPRT and human HGPRT. These novel nucleoside phosphonates have a pyrrolidine, piperidine or piperazine ring incorporated into the linker connecting the purine base to a phosphonate group(s) and exhibited a broad range of Ki values between 0.15 and 72 μM. The corresponding phosphoramidate prodrugs, able to cross cell membranes, have been synthesized and evaluated in a P. falciparum infected human erythrocyte assay. Of the eight prodrugs evaluated seven exhibited in vitro antimalarial activity with IC50 values within the range of 2.5-12.1 μM. The bis-phosphoramidate prodrug 13a with a mean (SD) IC50 of 2.5 ± 0.7 μM against the chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum W2 strain exhibited low cytotoxicity in the human hepatocellular liver carcinoma (HepG2) and normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDF) cell lines at a concentration of 100 μM suggesting good selectivity for further structure-activity relationship investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Frydrych
- The Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, CZ-16610 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Dianne T Keough
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, 4068, Australia
| | - Marina Chavchich
- Department of Drug Evaluation, Australian Defence Force Malaria and Infectious Disease Institute, Enoggera, Brisbane, Queensland 4051, Australia
| | - Jye Travis
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, 4068, Australia; Department of Drug Evaluation, Australian Defence Force Malaria and Infectious Disease Institute, Enoggera, Brisbane, Queensland 4051, Australia
| | - Martin Dračínský
- The Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, CZ-16610 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Michael D Edstein
- Department of Drug Evaluation, Australian Defence Force Malaria and Infectious Disease Institute, Enoggera, Brisbane, Queensland 4051, Australia
| | - Luke W Guddat
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, 4068, Australia
| | - Dana Hocková
- The Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, CZ-16610 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Zlatko Janeba
- The Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry of the Czech Academy of Sciences, CZ-16610 Prague 6, Czech Republic.
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Patel OPS, Beteck RM, Legoabe LJ. Exploration of artemisinin derivatives and synthetic peroxides in antimalarial drug discovery research. Eur J Med Chem 2021; 213:113193. [PMID: 33508479 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Malaria is a life-threatening infectious disease caused by protozoal parasites belonging to the genus Plasmodium. It caused an estimated 405,000 deaths and 228 million malaria cases globally in 2018 as per the World Malaria Report released by World Health Organization (WHO) in 2019. Artemisinin (ART), a "Nobel medicine" and its derivatives have proven potential application in antimalarial drug discovery programs. In this review, antimalarial activity of the most active artemisinin derivatives modified at C-10/C-11/C-16/C-6 positions and synthetic peroxides (endoperoxides, 1,2,4-trioxolanes, 1,2,4-trioxanes, and 1,2,4,5-tetraoxanes) are systematically summarized. The developmental trend of ART derivatives, and cyclic peroxides along with their antimalarial activity and how the activity is affected by structural variations on different sites of the compounds are discussed. This compilation would be very useful towards scaffold hopping aimed at avoiding the unnecessary complexity in cyclic peroxides, and ultimately act as a handy resource for the development of potential chemotherapeutics against Plasmodium species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Om P S Patel
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
| | - Richard M Beteck
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Lesetja J Legoabe
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
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Patel OPS, Beteck RM, Legoabe LJ. Antimalarial application of quinones: A recent update. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 210:113084. [PMID: 33333397 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.113084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 11/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Atovaquone belongs to a naphthoquinone class of drugs and is used in combination with proguanil (Malarone) for the treatment of acute, uncomplicated malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum (including chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum/P. vivax). Numerous quinone-derived compounds have attracted considerable attention in the last few decades due to their potential in antimalarial drug discovery. Several semi-synthetic derivatives of natural quinones, synthetic quinones (naphtho-/benzo-quinone, anthraquinones, thiazinoquinones), and quinone-based hybrids were explored for their in vitro and in vivo antimalarial activities. A careful literature survey revealed that this topic has not been compiled as a review article so far. Therefore, we herein summarise the recent discovery (the year 2009-2020) of quinone based antimalarial compounds in chronological order. This compilation would be very useful towards the exploration of novel quinone-derived compounds against malarial parasites with promising efficacy and lesser side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Om P S Patel
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
| | - Richard M Beteck
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa
| | - Lesetja J Legoabe
- Centre of Excellence for Pharmaceutical Sciences, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
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Barrow P, Dujardin JC, Fasel N, Greenwood AD, Osterrieder K, Lomonossoff G, Fiori PL, Atterbury R, Rossi M, Lalle M. Viruses of protozoan parasites and viral therapy: Is the time now right? Virol J 2020; 17:142. [PMID: 32993724 PMCID: PMC7522927 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-020-01410-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Infections caused by protozoan parasites burden the world with huge costs in terms of human and animal health. Most parasitic diseases caused by protozoans are neglected, particularly those associated with poverty and tropical countries, but the paucity of drug treatments and vaccines combined with increasing problems of drug resistance are becoming major concerns for their control and eradication. In this climate, the discovery/repurposing of new drugs and increasing effort in vaccine development should be supplemented with an exploration of new alternative/synergic treatment strategies. Viruses, either native or engineered, have been employed successfully as highly effective and selective therapeutic approaches to treat cancer (oncolytic viruses) and antibiotic-resistant bacterial diseases (phage therapy). Increasing evidence is accumulating that many protozoan, but also helminth, parasites harbour a range of different classes of viruses that are mostly absent from humans. Although some of these viruses appear to have no effect on their parasite hosts, others either have a clear direct negative impact on the parasite or may, in fact, contribute to the virulence of parasites for humans. This review will focus mainly on the viruses identified in protozoan parasites that are of medical importance. Inspired and informed by the experience gained from the application of oncolytic virus- and phage-therapy, rationally-driven strategies to employ these viruses successfully against parasitic diseases will be presented and discussed in the light of the current knowledge of the virus biology and the complex interplay between the viruses, the parasite hosts and the human host. We also highlight knowledge gaps that should be addressed to advance the potential of virotherapy against parasitic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Barrow
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, UK.
| | - Jean Claude Dujardin
- Molecular Parasitology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Nationalestraat, 155, 2000, Antwerpen, Belgium
| | - Nicolas Fasel
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Ch. des Boveresses 155, 1066, Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Alex D Greenwood
- Department of Wildlife Diseases, Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Institut für Virologie, Robert Von Ostertag-Haus - Zentrum Fuer Infektionsmedizin, Robert von Ostertag-Str. 7-13, 14163, Berlin, Germany
| | - Klaus Osterrieder
- Institut für Virologie, Robert Von Ostertag-Haus - Zentrum Fuer Infektionsmedizin, Robert von Ostertag-Str. 7-13, 14163, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Infectious Diseases and Public Health, Jockey Club College of Veterinary Medicine and Life Sciences, 31 To Yuen Street, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - George Lomonossoff
- Department of Biological Chemistry, John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, NR4 7UH, UK
| | - Pier Luigi Fiori
- Dipartimento Di Scienze Biomedice, Universita Degli Studi Di Sassari, Sardinia, Italy
| | - Robert Atterbury
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, Leicestershire, LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Matteo Rossi
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Ch. des Boveresses 155, 1066, Epalinges, Switzerland
| | - Marco Lalle
- Unit of Foodborne and Neglected Parasitic Diseases, European Union Reference Laboratory for Parasites, Department of Infectious Diseases, Istituto Superiore Di Sanità, viale Regina Elena 299, 00186, Rome, Italy.
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Arias MH, Quiliano M, Bourgeade-Delmas S, Fabing I, Chantal I, Berthier D, Minet C, Eparvier V, Sorres J, Stien D, Galiano S, Aldana I, Valentin A, Garavito G, Deharo E. Alsinol, an arylamino alcohol derivative active against Plasmodium, Babesia, Trypanosoma, and Leishmania: past and new outcomes. Parasitol Res 2020; 119:3503-3515. [PMID: 32772176 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-020-06832-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Malaria, babesiosis, trypanosomosis, and leishmaniasis are some of the most life-threatening parasites, but the range of drugs to treat them is limited. An effective, safe, and low-cost drug with a large activity spectrum is urgently needed. For this purpose, an aryl amino alcohol derivative called Alsinol was resynthesized, screened in silico, and tested against Plasmodium, Babesia, Trypanosoma, and Leishmania. In silico Alsinol follows the Lipinski and Ghose rules. In vitro it had schizontocidal activity against Plasmodium falciparum and was able to inhibit gametocytogenesis; it was particularly active against late gametocytes. In malaria-infected mice, it showed a dose-dependent activity similar to chloroquine. It demonstrated a similar level of activity to reference compounds against Babesia divergens, and against promastigotes, and amastigotes stages of Leishmania in vitro. It inhibited the in vitro growth of two African animal strains of Trypanosoma but was ineffective in vivo in our experimental conditions. It showed moderate toxicity in J774A1 and Vero cell models. The study demonstrated that Alsinol has a large spectrum of activity and is potentially affordable to produce. Nevertheless, challenges remain in the process of scaling up synthesis, creating a suitable clinical formulation, and determining the safety margin in preclinical models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria H Arias
- Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Farmacia, Grupo de Investigación FaMeTra (Farmacología de la Medicina Tradicional y Popular), Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Bogotá, Carrera 30 45-03, Bogotá D.C., 111321, Colombia
| | - Miguel Quiliano
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Centre for Research and Innovation, Universidad Peruana de Ciencias Aplicadas (UPC), 15023, Lima, Peru
| | - Sandra Bourgeade-Delmas
- UMR 152 PHARMA-DEV, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement IRD, Université de Toulouse UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Isabelle Fabing
- Laboratoire de Synthèse et Physicochimie de Molécules d'Intérêt Biologique (SPCMIB), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), 31062, Cedex 09, Toulouse, France
| | - Isabelle Chantal
- UMR INTERTRYP, CIRAD, F-34398, Montpellier, France.,INTERTRYP, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - David Berthier
- UMR INTERTRYP, CIRAD, F-34398, Montpellier, France.,INTERTRYP, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Cécile Minet
- UMR INTERTRYP, CIRAD, F-34398, Montpellier, France.,INTERTRYP, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Veronique Eparvier
- ICSN-CNRS UPR 2301 Équipe "Métabolites de végétaux et micro-organismes associés: isolement, synthèse et bioactivité", 91198 cedex, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Jonathan Sorres
- ICSN-CNRS UPR 2301 Équipe "Métabolites de végétaux et micro-organismes associés: isolement, synthèse et bioactivité", 91198 cedex, Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - Didier Stien
- Laboratoire de Biodiversité et Biotechnologie Microbienne, LBBM, Observatoire Océanologique, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, 66650, Banyuls-sur-mer, France
| | - Silvia Galiano
- Facultad de Farmacia y Nutrición, Departamento de Química Orgánica y Farmacéutica, Universidad de Navarra, Campus Universitario, 31008, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Ignacio Aldana
- Facultad de Farmacia y Nutrición, Departamento de Química Orgánica y Farmacéutica, Universidad de Navarra, Campus Universitario, 31008, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Alexis Valentin
- UMR 152 PHARMA-DEV, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement IRD, Université de Toulouse UPS, Toulouse, France
| | - Giovanny Garavito
- Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Farmacia, Grupo de Investigación FaMeTra (Farmacología de la Medicina Tradicional y Popular), Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Sede Bogotá, Carrera 30 45-03, Bogotá D.C., 111321, Colombia.
| | - Eric Deharo
- UMR 152 PHARMA-DEV, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement IRD, Université de Toulouse UPS, Toulouse, France.,Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Représentation IRD Ban Nasay, Saysettha District, P.O. Box 5992, Vientiane, Lao People's Democratic Republic
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Chugh A, Kumar A, Verma A, Kumar S, Kumar P. A review of antimalarial activity of two or three nitrogen atoms containing heterocyclic compounds. Med Chem Res 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00044-020-02604-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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18
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Van de Walle T, Boone M, Van Puyvelde J, Combrinck J, Smith PJ, Chibale K, Mangelinckx S, D'hooghe M. Synthesis and biological evaluation of novel quinoline-piperidine scaffolds as antiplasmodium agents. Eur J Med Chem 2020; 198:112330. [PMID: 32408064 PMCID: PMC7294232 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2020.112330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2020] [Revised: 04/10/2020] [Accepted: 04/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The parasitic disease malaria places almost half of the world's population at risk of infection and is responsible for more than 400,000 deaths each year. The first-line treatment, artemisinin combination therapies (ACT) regimen, is under threat due to emerging resistance of Plasmodium falciparum strains in e.g. the Mekong delta. Therefore, the development of new antimalarial agents is crucial in order to circumvent the growing resistance. Chloroquine, the long-established antimalarial drug, still serves as model compound for the design of new quinoline analogues, resulting in numerous new active derivatives against chloroquine-resistant P. falciparum strains over the past twenty years. In this work, a set of functionalized quinoline analogues, decorated with a modified piperidine-containing side chain, was synthesized. Both amino- and (aminomethyl)quinolines were prepared, resulting in a total of 18 novel quinoline-piperidine conjugates representing four different chemical series. Evaluation of their in vitro antiplasmodium activity against a CQ-sensitive (NF54) and a CQ-resistant (K1) strain of P. falciparum unveiled highly potent activities in the nanomolar range against both strains for five 4-aminoquinoline derivatives. Moreover, no cytotoxicity was observed for all active compounds at the maximum concentration tested. These five new aminoquinoline hit structures are therefore of considerable value for antimalarial research and have the potency to be transformed into novel antimalarial agents upon further hit-to-lead optimization studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Van de Walle
- SynBioC Research Group, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Maya Boone
- SynBioC Research Group, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Julie Van Puyvelde
- SynBioC Research Group, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jill Combrinck
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, Medical School, University of Cape Town, K45, OMB, Groote Schuur Hospital, Observatory, 7925, South Africa; Wellcome Centre for Infectious Diseases Research in Africa, Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, South Africa
| | - Peter J Smith
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology, Department of Medicine, Medical School, University of Cape Town, K45, OMB, Groote Schuur Hospital, Observatory, 7925, South Africa
| | - Kelly Chibale
- South African Medical Research Council Drug Discovery and Development Research Unit, Department of Chemistry and Institute of Infectious Disease & Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, 7701, South Africa
| | - Sven Mangelinckx
- SynBioC Research Group, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Matthias D'hooghe
- SynBioC Research Group, Department of Green Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000, Ghent, Belgium.
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Hou N, Jiang N, Ma Y, Zou Y, Piao X, Liu S, Chen Q. Low-Complexity Repetitive Epitopes of Plasmodium falciparum Are Decoys for Humoural Immune Responses. Front Immunol 2020; 11:610. [PMID: 32351503 PMCID: PMC7174639 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Induction of humoural immunity is critical for clinical protection against malaria. More than 100 malaria vaccine candidates have been investigated at different developmental stages, but with limited protection. One of the roadblocks constrains the development of malaria vaccines is the poor immunogenicity of the antigens. The objective of this study was to map the linear B-cell epitopes of the Plasmodium falciparum erythrocyte invasion-associated antigens with a purpose of understanding humoural responses and protection. We conducted a large-scale screen using overlapping peptide microarrays of 37 proteins from the P. falciparum parasite, most of which are invasion-associated antigens which have been tested in clinical settings as vaccine candidates, with sera from individuals with various infection episodes. Analysis of the epitome of the antigens revealed that the most immunogenic epitopes were predominantly located in the low-complexity regions of the proteins containing repetitive and/or glutamate-rich motifs in different sequence contexts. However, in vitro assay showed the antibodies specific for these epitopes did not show invasion inhibitory effect. These discoveries indicated that the low-complexity regions of the parasite proteins might drive immune responses away from functional domains, which may be an instructive finding for the rational design of vaccine candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nan Hou
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Ning Jiang
- Key Laboratory of Livestock Infectious Diseases in Northeast China, Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, China.,The Research Unit for Pathogenic Mechanisms of Zoonotic Parasites, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Shenyang, China
| | - Yu Ma
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Yang Zou
- Beijing Key Laboratory for Research on Prevention and Treatment of Tropical Diseases, Beijing Tropical Medicine Research Institute, Beijing Friendship Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Xianyu Piao
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Shuai Liu
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China
| | - Qijun Chen
- NHC Key Laboratory of Systems Biology of Pathogens, Institute of Pathogen Biology, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Livestock Infectious Diseases in Northeast China, Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Zoonosis, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang, China.,The Research Unit for Pathogenic Mechanisms of Zoonotic Parasites, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Shenyang, China
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20
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Friebe A, Sandner P, Schmidtko A. cGMP: a unique 2nd messenger molecule - recent developments in cGMP research and development. NAUNYN-SCHMIEDEBERG'S ARCHIVES OF PHARMACOLOGY 2020; 393:287-302. [PMID: 31853617 PMCID: PMC7260148 DOI: 10.1007/s00210-019-01779-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) is a unique second messenger molecule formed in different cell types and tissues. cGMP targets a variety of downstream effector molecules and, thus, elicits a very broad variety of cellular effects. Its production is triggered by stimulation of either soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) or particulate guanylyl cyclase (pGC); both enzymes exist in different isoforms. cGMP-induced effects are regulated by endogenous receptor ligands such as nitric oxide (NO) and natriuretic peptides (NPs). Depending on the distribution of sGC and pGC and the formation of ligands, this pathway regulates not only the cardiovascular system but also the kidney, lung, liver, and brain function; in addition, the cGMP pathway is involved in the pathogenesis of fibrosis, inflammation, or neurodegeneration and may also play a role in infectious diseases such as malaria. Moreover, new pharmacological approaches are being developed which target sGC- and pGC-dependent pathways for the treatment of various diseases. Therefore, it is of key interest to understand this pathway from scratch, beginning with the molecular basis of cGMP generation, the structure and function of both guanylyl cyclases and cGMP downstream targets; research efforts also focus on the subsequent signaling cascades, their potential crosstalk, and also the translational and, ultimately, the clinical implications of cGMP modulation. This review tries to summarize the contributions to the "9th International cGMP Conference on cGMP Generators, Effectors and Therapeutic Implications" held in Mainz in 2019. Presented data will be discussed and extended also in light of recent landmark findings and ongoing activities in the field of preclinical and clinical cGMP research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Friebe
- Institute of Physiology, University of Würzburg, Röntgenring 9, D-97070 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Peter Sandner
- Drug Discovery, Bayer AG, Aprather Weg 18a, D-42096 Wuppertal, Germany and Institute of Pharmacology, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Str. 1, D-30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Achim Schmidtko
- Institute of Pharmacology and Clinical Pharmacy, Goethe University, Max-von-Laue-Str. 9, D-60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
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21
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Barik S. Molecular Interactions between Pathogens and the Circadian Clock. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20235824. [PMID: 31756974 PMCID: PMC6928883 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20235824] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2019] [Revised: 11/17/2019] [Accepted: 11/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The daily periodicity of the Earth's rotation around the Sun, referred to as circadian (Latin "circa" = about, and "diem" = day), is also mirrored in the behavior and metabolism of living beings. The discovery that dedicated cellular genes control various aspects of this periodicity has led to studies of the molecular mechanism of the circadian response at the cellular level. It is now established that the circadian genes impact on a large network of hormonal, metabolic, and immunological pathways, affecting multiple aspects of biology. Recent studies have extended the role of the circadian system to the regulation of infection, host-pathogen interaction, and the resultant disease outcome. This critical review summarizes our current knowledge of circadian-pathogen interaction at both systemic and cellular levels, but with emphasis on the molecular aspects of the regulation. Wherever applicable, the potential of a direct interaction between circadian factors and pathogenic macromolecules is also explored. Finally, this review offers new directions and guidelines for future research in this area, which should facilitate progress.
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22
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C. S. Pinheiro L, M. Feitosa L, O. Gandi M, F. Silveira F, Boechat N. The Development of Novel Compounds Against Malaria: Quinolines, Triazolpyridines, Pyrazolopyridines and Pyrazolopyrimidines. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24224095. [PMID: 31766184 PMCID: PMC6891514 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24224095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Revised: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Based on medicinal chemistry tools, new compounds for malaria treatment were designed. The scaffolds of the drugs used to treat malaria, such as chloroquine, primaquine, amodiaquine, mefloquine and sulfadoxine, were used as inspiration. We demonstrated the importance of quinoline and non-quinoline derivatives in vitro with activity against the W2 chloroquine-resistant (CQR) Plasmodium falciparum clone strain and in vivo against Plasmodium berghei-infected mouse model. Among the quinoline derivatives, new hybrids between chloroquine and sulfadoxine were designed, which gave rise to an important prototype that was more active than both chloroquine and sulfadoxine. Hybrids between chloroquine-atorvastatin and primaquine-atorvastatin were also synthesized and shown to be more potent than the parent drugs alone. Additionally, among the quinoline derivatives, new mefloquine derivatives were synthesized. Among the non-quinoline derivatives, we obtained excellent results with the triazolopyrimidine nucleus, which gave us prototype I that inspired the synthesis of new heterocycles. The pyrazolopyrimidine derivatives stood out as non-quinoline derivatives that are potent inhibitors of the P. falciparum dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (PfDHODH) enzyme. We also examined the pyrazolopyridine and pyrazolopyrimidine nuclei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luiz C. S. Pinheiro
- Departamento de Síntese de Fármacos, Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos, Farmanguinhos-FIOCRUZ, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rua Sizenando Nabuco 100, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil (L.M.F.); (M.O.G.); (F.F.S.)
| | - Lívia M. Feitosa
- Departamento de Síntese de Fármacos, Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos, Farmanguinhos-FIOCRUZ, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rua Sizenando Nabuco 100, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil (L.M.F.); (M.O.G.); (F.F.S.)
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Farmacologia e Química Medicinal, PPGFQM, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil
| | - Marilia O. Gandi
- Departamento de Síntese de Fármacos, Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos, Farmanguinhos-FIOCRUZ, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rua Sizenando Nabuco 100, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil (L.M.F.); (M.O.G.); (F.F.S.)
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Farmacologia e Química Medicinal, PPGFQM, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil
| | - Flávia F. Silveira
- Departamento de Síntese de Fármacos, Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos, Farmanguinhos-FIOCRUZ, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rua Sizenando Nabuco 100, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil (L.M.F.); (M.O.G.); (F.F.S.)
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Química, PGQu Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil
| | - Nubia Boechat
- Departamento de Síntese de Fármacos, Instituto de Tecnologia em Fármacos, Farmanguinhos-FIOCRUZ, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rua Sizenando Nabuco 100, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil (L.M.F.); (M.O.G.); (F.F.S.)
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Farmacologia e Química Medicinal, PPGFQM, Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Química, PGQu Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21041-250, Brazil
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +55-21-3977-2464
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