Eprosartan mesylate loaded bilosomes as potential nano-carriers against diabetic nephropathy in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

Non-invasive caffeinated-nanovesicles as adipocytes-targeted therapy for cellulite and localized fats

Caffeine (CAF) is a non-selective adenosine A1 receptor antagonist which predominates in fat cells. When CAF binds to adenosine receptors, it increases cyclic adenosine monophosphate; inhibiting adipogenesis and inducing fat lipolysis. Resveratrol (RSV) is an antioxidant polyphenol possessing different anti-obesity mechanisms. Topical application of both hydrophilic CAF and lipophilic RSV is limited. This study aimed to develop novel caffeinated-resveratrol bilosomes (CRB) and caffeine-bilosomes (CB) that could non-invasively target and deposit in fat cells. RSV bilosomes (RB) were prepared as a non-targeted system for comparison. CRB showed nanosize (364.1 nm ±6.5 nm) and high entrapment for both active compounds. Rats treated topically with CRB revealed a significant decrease (P = 0.039) in body weight. Histological analysis of the excised skin demonstrated a reduction in the subcutaneous fatty layer thickness and a decrease in the size of connective tissue-imbedded fat cells. Kidney histological examination of RB-treated rats showed subcapsular tubular epithelial cells with cytoplasmic vacuolation. This reflects a systemic effect of RSV from the non-targeted RB compared to CRB, which had a targeting effect on the adipose tissue. In conclusion, CAF in CRB significantly enhanced RSV deposition in adipose tissue and assisted its local-acting effect for managing obesity and cellulite.

Fabrication and application of targeted ciprofloxacin nanocarriers for the treatment of chronic bacterial prostatitis

Pathogenic bacteria cause chronic bacterial prostatitis (CBP). CPB is characterized by urinary tract infection and persistence of pathogenic bacteria in prostatic secretion. Owing to poor blood supply to the prostate gland and limited drug penetration, CBP treatment is difficult. Transferosomes are ultradeformable vesicles for nanocarrier applications, which have become an important area of nanomedicine. Such carriers are specifically targeted to the pathological area to provide maximum therapeutic efficacy. It consists of a lipid bilayer soybean lecithin phosphatidylcholine (PC), an edge activator Tween 80 with various ratios, and a chloroform/methanol core. Depending on the lipophilicity of the active substance, it can be encapsulated within the core or among the lipid bilayer. Due to their exceptional flexibility, which enables them to squeeze themselves through narrow pores that are significantly smaller than their size, they can be a solution. One formulation (Cipro5 PEG) was selected for further in vitro analysis and was composed of phosphatidylcholine (PC), Tween 80, and polyethylene glycol-6 stearate (PEG-6 stearate) in a ratio of 3:3:1 in a chloroform/methanol mixture (1:2 v/v). In vitro, the results showed that PEGylated transferosomes had faster drug release, higher permeation, and increased bioavailability. The transferosomes were quantified with a particle size of 202.59 nm, a zeta potential of-49.38 mV, and a drug entrapment efficiency of 80.05%. The aim of this study was to investigate drug targeting. Therefore, Monoclonal antibody IgG was coupled with Cipro5 PEG, which has specificity and selectivity for conjugated nanoparticles. In vivo, a total of twenty-five adult Wistar rats were obtained and randomly divided into 5 groups, each of 5 rats at random: the control group, blank group, positive control group, Cipro 5PEG group, and Cipro 5PEG coupled with IgG antibody group. The cytokines levels (IL-1β, IL-8, and TNF-α) in the serum were detected by analysis kits. Compared with the control group, treatment with Cipro 5PEG coupled with the IgG antibody could significantly inhibit cytokines, according to histological analysis. Cipro 5PEG, coupled with the IgG antibody group, reduced prostate tissue inflammation. Hence, our results show a promising approach to delivering antibiotics for the targeted therapy of CBP.

Bile salt-enriched vs. non-enriched nanoparticles: comparison of their physicochemical characteristics and release pattern

Bile salts were first used in the preparation of nanoparticles due to their stabilizing effects. As time went by, they attracted much attention and were increasingly employed in fabricating nanoparticles. It is well accepted that the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles are influential factors in their permeation, distribution, elimination and degree of effectiveness as well as toxicity. The review of articles shows that the use of bile salts in the structure of nanocarriers may cause significant changes in their physicochemical properties. Hence, having information about the effect of bile salts on the properties of nanoparticles could be valuable in the design of optimal carriers. Herein, we review studies in which bile salts were used in preparing liposomes, niosomes and other nanocarriers. Furthermore, the effects of bile salts on entrapment efficiency, particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, release profile and stability of nanoparticles are pointed out. Finally, we debate how to take advantage of bile salts potential for preparing desirable nanocarriers.

Application of nanotechnology in the treatment of glomerulonephritis: current status and future perspectives

Glomerulonephritis (GN) is the most common cause of end-stage renal failure worldwide; in most cases, it cannot be cured and can only delay the progression of the disease. At present, the main treatment methods include symptomatic therapy, immunosuppressive therapy, and renal replacement therapy. However, effective treatment of GN is hindered by issues such as steroid resistance, serious side effects, low bioavailability, and lack of precise targeting. With the widespread application of nanoparticles in medical treatment, novel methods have emerged for the treatment of kidney diseases. Targeted transportation of drugs, nucleic acids, and other substances to kidney tissues and even kidney cells through nanodrug delivery systems can reduce the systemic effects and adverse reactions of drugs and improve treatment effectiveness. The high specificity of nanoparticles enables them to bind to ion channels and block or enhance channel gating, thus improving inflammation. This review briefly introduces the characteristics of GN, describes the treatment status of GN, systematically summarizes the research achievements of nanoparticles in the treatment of primary GN, diabetic nephropathy and lupus nephritis, analyzes recent therapeutic developments, and outlines promising research directions, such as gas signaling molecule nanodrug delivery systems and ultrasmall nanoparticles. The current application of nanoparticles in GN is summarized to provide a reference for better treatment of GN in the future.

Design, optimization, and characterization of Althaea officinalis-loaded transliposomes for the treatment of atopic dermatitis: a Box Behnken Design, in vitro, and ex vivo study

A chronic skin disorder called atopic dermatitis (AD) is brought on by the deterioration of the skin's barrier function marked by inflammation, dryness, and bacterial infection along with immunological changes. Althaea officinalis (AO), known for its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties, has been explored as a potential treatment for AD. This study aimed to develop and evaluate a novel transliposomes (TL) formulation containing AO for AD treatment. Using rotary evaporation, AO-TL formulations were created and optimized employing Box Behnken Design. The optimized AO-TL formulation showed consistent characteristics: vesicle size of 145.8 nm, polydispersity index of 0.201, zeta potential of -28.22 mV, and entrapment efficiency of 86.21%. TEM imaging shows the spherical shapes of the vesicle. These findings demonstrate the formulation's stability and ability to encapsulate AO effectively. In vitro drug release studies revealed that the AO-TL formulation released 81.28% of the drug, outperforming conventional AO dispersion (56.80%). Additionally, when applied to rat skin, the TL gel demonstrated deeper penetration (30 μm) in comparison to the standard solution (5.0 μm) based on confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Ex vivo and dermatokinetics studies showed improved penetration of drug-loaded transliposomes gel in rat skin than the conventional AO gel. Overall, the optimized AO-TL formulation offers promising characteristics and performance for the topical treatment of AD. Its drug release, antioxidant activity, and deeper penetration suggest enhanced therapeutic effects. Further research and clinical trials are needed to validate its efficacy and safety in AD patients.

Microwave-Assisted Formation of Ternary Inclusion Complex of Pterostilbene

Pterostilbene (PTS) is a naturally occurring phytoalexin. PTS displays limited water solubility, which consequently results in its diminished oral bioavailability. Therefore, a ternary inclusion complex (TIC) of PTS with β-cyclodextrin (βCD) in the presence of ternary substance Pluronic® F-127 (PLF) was prepared using microwave technology. The PTS-TIC was characterized by dissolution performance. Further, the prepared TIC was characterized by DSC, FTIR, NMR, XRD, and SEM analysis. Additionally, the antioxidant activity of PTS and PTS-TIC was also evaluated. Phase-solubility studies revealed that PTS's solubility in water was increased by 6.72 times when βCD/PLF was present. In comparison with PTS, prepared PTS-TIC produced a considerable improvement in PTS release. After 1 h, 74.03 ± 4.47% of PTS was released from PTS-TIC. Outcomes of DSC, FTIR, NMR, XRD, and SEM analysis revealed that the PTS was enclosed in the βCD cavity. In terms of antioxidant properties, the PTS-TIC formulation demonstrated superior activity compared to PTS, possibly attributed to the improved solubility of PTS resulting from the formation of TIC using microwave technology. It was concluded that microwave technology proved to be an extremely beneficial means of interacting PTS with βCD. In addition to increasing the solubility of PTS, the findings are also expected to improve its bioavailability by increasing its solubility. As a result, this study could provide insight into potential methods for enhancing the solubility of polyphenolic substances like PTS.

Unlocking the Potential of Bilosomes and Modified Bilosomes: a Comprehensive Journey into Advanced Drug Delivery Trends

Vesicular drug delivery systems have revolutionized the pharmaceutical field, offering a promising path for achieving targeted and sustained drug delivery. The oral, transdermal, and ocular routes of administration offer optimal ease in attaining desired therapeutic outcomes. However, conventional treatment strategies are all plagued with several challenges, such as poor skin permeability, ocular barriers, and gastrointestinal (GIT) degradation leading to vesicular disruption with the release of the encapsulated drug before reaching the targeted site of action. In recent years, bilosomes-stabilized nanovesicles containing bile salts have received considerable attention due to their versatility and adaptability for diverse applications. These bilayered vesicles enhance the solubility of lipophilic drugs and improve formulation stability in the gastrointestinal tract. They exhibit ultra-deformable properties, improving stratum corneum permeability, making them ideal candidates for oral and transdermal drug delivery. In addition, bilosomes find utility in topical drug delivery, making them applicable for ocular administration. Over the past decade, extensive research has highlighted bilosomes' potential as superior vesicular carriers surpassing liposomes and niosomes. Advances in this field have led to the development of modified bilosomes, such as probilosomes and surface-modified bilosomes, further enhancing their capabilities and therapeutic potential. Thus, the present review provides a comprehensive summary of bilosomes, modified bilosomes, surface modifications with their mechanism of action, formulation components, preparation methods, patents, and a wide array of recent pharmaceutical applications in oral, transdermal, and ocular drug delivery. The enhanced properties of bilosomes offer promising prospects for targeted and effective drug delivery, providing potential solutions for addressing various therapeutic challenges.

Nanomedicines for the management of diabetic nephropathy: present progress and prospects

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a serious microvascular consequence of diabetes mellitus (DM), posing an encumbrance to public health worldwide. Control over the onset and progress of DN depend heavily on early detection and effective treatment. DN is a major contributor to end-stage renal disease, and a complete cure is yet to be achieved with currently available options. Though some therapeutic molecules have exhibited promise in treating DN complications, their poor solubility profile, low bioavailability, poor permeation, high therapeutic dose and associated toxicity, and low patient compliance apprehend their clinical usefulness. Recent research has indicated nano-systems as potential theranostic platforms displaying futuristic promise in the diagnosis and treatment of DN. Early and accurate diagnosis, site-specific delivery and retention by virtue of ligand conjugation, and improved pharmacokinetic profile are amongst the major advantages of nano-platforms, defining their superiority. Thus, the emergence of nanoparticles has offered fresh approaches to the possible diagnostic and therapeutic strategies regarding DN. The present review corroborates an updated overview of different types of nanocarriers regarding potential approaches for the diagnosis and therapy of DN.

Preparation and Characterization of Transethosome Formulation for the Enhanced Delivery of Sinapic Acid

Sinapic acid (SA) is a bioactive phenolic acid; its diverse properties are its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anticancer, and antibacterial activities. The bioactive compound SA is poorly soluble in water. Our goal was to formulate SA-transethosomes using thin-film hydration. The prepared formulations were examined for various parameters. In addition, the optimized formulation was evaluated for surface morphology, in-vitro penetration studies across the Strat M®, and its antioxidant activity. The optimized formulation (F5) exhibited 74.36% entrapment efficacy. The vesicle size, zeta potential, and polydispersity index were found to be 111.67 nm, -7.253 mV, and 0.240, respectively. The surface morphology showed smooth and spherical vesicles of SA-transethosomes. In addition, the prepared SA-transethosomes exhibited enhanced antioxidant activity. The SA-transethosomes demonstrated considerably greater penetration across the Strat M® membrane during the study. The flux of SA and SA-transethosomes through the Strat M® membrane was 1.03 ± 0.07 µg/cm2/h and 2.93 ± 0.16 µg/cm2/h. The enhancement ratio of SA-transethosomes was 2.86 ± 0.35 compared to the control. The SA-transethosomes are flexible nano-sized vesicles and are able to penetrate the entrapped drug in a higher concentration. Hence, it was concluded that SA-transethosome-based approaches have the potential to be useful for accentuating the penetrability of SA across the skin.

Recent Advances of Ocular Drug Delivery Systems: Prominence of Ocular Implants for Chronic Eye Diseases

Chronic ocular diseases can seriously impact the eyes and could potentially result in blindness or serious vision loss. According to the most recent data from the WHO, there are more than 2 billion visually impaired people in the world. Therefore, it is pivotal to develop more sophisticated, long-acting drug delivery systems/devices to treat chronic eye conditions. This review covers several drug delivery nanocarriers that can control chronic eye disorders non-invasively. However, most of the developed nanocarriers are still in preclinical or clinical stages. Long-acting drug delivery systems, such as inserts and implants, constitute the majority of the clinically used methods for the treatment of chronic eye diseases due to their steady state release, persistent therapeutic activity, and ability to bypass most ocular barriers. However, implants are considered invasive drug delivery technologies, especially those that are nonbiodegradable. Furthermore, in vitro characterization approaches, although useful, are limited in mimicking or truly representing the in vivo environment. This review focuses on long-acting drug delivery systems (LADDS), particularly implantable drug delivery systems (IDDS), their formulation, methods of characterization, and clinical application for the treatment of eye diseases.

Bilosomes as a promising nanoplatform for oral delivery of an alkaloid nutraceutical: improved pharmacokinetic profile and snowballed hypoglycemic effect in diabetic rats

Diabetes mellitus is a life-threatening metabolic disease. At the moment, there is no effective treatment available to combat it. In this study, we aimed to develop berberine-loaded bilosomes (BER-BLS) to boost the oral bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy of berberine, a natural antidiabetic medication. The BER-BLS was fabricated using a thin-film hydration strategy and optimized using a central composite design (face-centered). The average vesicle size, entrapment efficiency, and surface charge of the optimized BER-BLS preparation were 196.5 nm, 89.7%, (−) 36.4 mV, respectively. In addition, it exhibited higher stability and better-sustained release of berberine than the berberine solution (BER-SOL). BER-BLS and BER-SOL were administered to streptozocin-induced diabetic rats. The optimized BER-BLS formulation had a significant hypoglycemic impact, with a maximum blood glucose decrease of 41%, whereas BER-SOL only reduced blood glucose by 19%. Furthermore, the pharmacological effect of oral BER-BLS and BER-SOL corresponded to 99.3% and 31.7%, respectively, when compared to subcutaneous insulin (1 IU). A pharmacokinetic analysis found a 6.4-fold rise in the relative bioavailability of berberine in BER-BLS when compared to BER-SOL at a dosage of 100 mg/kg body weight. Histopathological investigation revealed that BER-BLS is suitable for oral administration. Our data demonstrate that BLS is a potential nanocarrier for berberine administration, enhancing its oral bioavailability and antidiabetic activity.

Vardenafil-Loaded Bilosomal Mucoadhesive Sponge for Buccal Delivery: Optimization, Characterization, and In Vivo Evaluation

Vardenafil (VDF) is a relatively new phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor that has limited oral bioavailability (≈15%). The objective of this study was to develop bilosome-based mucoadhesive buccal sponge for augmenting the oral bioavailability of VDF. VDF-loaded bilosomes were fabricated and optimized using a Box-Behnken design. The optimized VDF-loaded bilosomal formulation was assessed for surface morphology, particle size, thermal characteristics, and in vitro release. Afterwards, the optimized bilosomal formulation was incorporated into a cellulose-based matrix to obtain buccal sponge, which was evaluated for ex vivo permeation studies, in vivo oral bioavailability, and in vivo serum concentration of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). The mean particle size and entrapment efficiency (%) of optimized bilosome formulation were 282.6 ± 9.5 nm and 82.95 ± 3.5%, respectively. In vitro release studies at pH 6.8 emphasized the potential of optimized bilosomal formulation to sustain VDF release for 12 h. Ex vivo permeation study using sheep buccal mucosa indicated significant enhancement in penetration of VDF from bilosomal buccal sponge compared to plain VDF gel. Pharmacokinetic study in Albino rats showed ~5 fold increase in relative bioavailability with bilosomal buccal sponge, compared to VDF suspension. In addition, VDF-loaded bilosomal buccal sponge triggered higher serum levels of cGMP, a biomarker of VDF in vivo efficacy, compared to oral VDF suspension. To sum up, bilosomes might represent a potential nanocarrier for buccal delivery of VDF, enhancing its oral bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy.

Nanoparticles application as a therapeutic strategy for diabetes mellitus management

The prevalence of diabetes, as reported by the World Health Organization and the International Diabetes Federation, has raised many eyebrows about the dangers of diabetes mellitus to society, leading to the development of various therapeutic techniques, including nanotechnological, in the management of this disease. This review discusses silver, gold, ceramic, alloy, magnetic, silica, polymeric nanoparticles and their various applications in diabetes management which may help to reduce the incidence of diabetes and its complication.

Ameliorative effect of rubiadin-loaded nanocarriers in STZ-NA-induced diabetic nephropathy in rats: formulation optimization, molecular docking, and in vivo biological evaluation

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a significant source of end-stage renal illness all over the world in both developed and developing countries. The aim of the study was to optimize rubiadin-loaded niosomes (RLN) using Box-Behnken design for the management of streptozotocin-nicotinamide (STZ-NA)-induced DN in Wistar rats. The RLN were formulated by a "thin-layer hydration technique." The optimization of RLN was done by Box-Behnken design; the independent variables were cholesterol (CHOL), Span 80, and methanol, while the dependent factors were the vesicle size, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency. The optimized formulation was characterized for various biochemical parameters including anti-diabetic activity in Wistar rats. The optimized RLN presented vesicle size of 238 nm, zeta potential -68 mV, and entrapment efficiency 85%. A noteworthy decreased in blood glucose level was detected in STZ-NA-induced DN rats when orally treated with RLN (100 mg/kg/week and 200 mg/kg/week). Oral administration of RLN formulation considerably decreased the levels of urea, uric acid, and creatinine in DN rats. In addition, treatment of DN rats with RLN formulation considerably improves the level of TBARS, GSH, SOD, and CAT. The lipid profile of DN rats was also improved on treatment with RLN formulation. This study revealed that the prepared RLN formulation was successfully optimized by Box-Behnken design and found to be useful for the management of STZ-NA-induced DN in Wistar rats.

Harnessing of Doxylamine Succinate/Pyridoxine Hydrochloride-Dual Laden Bilosomes as a Novel Combinatorial Nanoparadigm for Intranasal Delivery: In Vitro Optimization and In Vivo Pharmacokinetic Appraisal

The present work is concerned with tailoring and appraisal of a novel nano-cargo; bilosomes (BLS) dual laded with doxylamine succinate (DAS) and pyridoxine hydrochloride (PDH), the first treatment option against gestational nausea and vomiting, for intranasal delivery. This bifunctional horizon could surmount constraints of orally-commercialized platforms both in dosage regimen and pharmacokinetic profile. For accomplishing this purpose, DAS/PDH-BLS were elaborated integrating phospholipid, sodium cholate and cholesterol applying thin-film hydration method based on Box-Behnken design. Utilizing Design-Expert® software, the effect of formulation variables on BLS physicochemical features alongside the optimal formulation selection were investigated. Then, the optimum DAS/PDH-BLS formulation was incorporated into a thermally-triggered in situ gelling base. The in vivo pharmacokinetic studies were explored in rats for intranasal DAS/PDH-BLS in situ gel compared with analogous intranasal free in situ gel and oral solution. The optimized BLS disclosed vesicle size of 243.23 nm, ζ potential of -31.33 mV, entrapment efficiency of 59.18 and 41.63%, accumulative % release within 8 h of 63.30 and 85.52% and accumulative permeated amount over 24 h of 347.92 and 195.4 µg/cm² for DAS/PDH, respectively. Following intranasal administration of the inspected BLS in situ gel, pharmacokinetic studies revealed a 1.64- and 2.3-fold increment in the relative bioavailability of DAS and a 1.7- and 3.73-fold increase for PDH compared to the intranasal free in situ gel and oral solution, respectively besides significantly extended mean residence times for both drugs. Thus, the intranasally exploited DAS/PDH-BLS could be deemed as a promising hybrid nanoplatform with fruitful pharmacokinetics and tolerability traits.

Emerging Treatment Strategies for Diabetes Mellitus and Associated Complications: An Update

The occurrence of diabetes mellitus (DM) is increasing rapidly at an accelerating rate worldwide. The status of diabetes has changed over the last three generations; whereas before it was deemed a minor disease of older people but currently it is now one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality among middle-aged and young people. High blood glucose-mediated functional loss, insulin sensitivity, and insulin deficiency lead to chronic disorders such as Type 1 and Type 2 DM. Traditional treatments of DM, such as insulin sensitization and insulin secretion cause undesirable side effects, leading to patient incompliance and lack of treatment. Nanotechnology in diabetes studies has encouraged the development of new modalities for measuring glucose and supplying insulin that hold the potential to improve the quality of life of diabetics. Other therapies, such as β-cells regeneration and gene therapy, in addition to insulin and oral hypoglycemic drugs, are currently used to control diabetes. The present review highlights the nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems and emerging treatment strategies of DM.

Liver Targeting of Daclatasvir via Tailoring Sterically Stabilized Bilosomes: Fabrication, Comparative In Vitro/In Vivo Appraisal and Biodistribution Studies

INTRODUCTION

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is a significant public health concern that threatens millions of individuals worldwide. Daclatasvir (DAC) is a promising direct-acting antiviral approved for treating HCV infection around the world. The goal of this study was to encapsulate DAC into novel polyethylene glycol (PEG) decorated bilosomes (PEG-BILS) to achieve enhanced drug delivery to the liver.

METHODS

DAC-loaded BILS were primed by a thin film hydrating technique. The study of the impact of various formulation variables on the properties of BILS and selection of the optimal formulation was generated using Design-Expert® software. The optimum preparation was then pegylated via the incorporation of PEG-6-stearate (5% w/w, with respect to the lipid phase).

RESULTS

The optimum PEG-BILS formulation, containing PL:SDC ratio (5:1), 5 mg cholesterol, and 30 min sonication, yielded spherical vesicles in the nanoscale (200±15.2 nm), elevated percent of entrapment efficiency (95.5±7.77%), and a sustained release profile of DAC with 35.11±2.3% release. In vivo and drug distribution studies revealed an enhanced hepatocellular delivery of DAC-loaded PEG-BILS compared to DAC-unPEG-BILS and DAC suspension, where DAC-PEG-BILS achieved 1.19- and 1.54 times the AUC0-24 of DAC-unPEG-BILS and DAC suspension, respectively. Compared with DAC-unPEG-BILS and DAC suspension, DAC-PEG-BILS delivered about 2 and 3 times higher DAC into the liver, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The innovative encapsulation of DAC-PEG-BILS has a great potential for liver targeting.

Trends in liposomal nanocarrier strategies for the oral delivery of biologics

The number of approved macromolecular drugs such as peptides, proteins and antibodies steadily increases. Since drugs with high molecular weight are commonly not suitable for oral delivery, research on carrier strategies enabling oral administration is of vital interest. In past decades, nanocarriers, in particular liposomes, have been exhaustively investigated as oral drug-delivery platform. Despite their successful application as parenteral delivery vehicles, liposomes have up to date not succeeded for oral administration. However, a plenitude of approaches aiming to increase the oral bioavailability of macromolecular drugs administered by liposomal formulations has been published. Here, we summarize the strategies published in the last 10 years (vaccine strategies excluded) with a main focus on strategies proven efficient in animal models.

Molecular prospect of type-2 diabetes: Nanotechnology based diagnostics and therapeutic intervention

About ninety percent of all diabetic conditions account for T2D caused due to abnormal insulin secretion/ action or increased hepatic glucose production. Factors that contribute towards the aetiology of T2D could be well explained through biochemical, molecular, and cellular aspects. In this review, we attempt to explain the recent evolving molecular and cellular advancement associated with T2D pathophysiology. Current progress fabricated in T2D research concerning intracellular signaling cascade, inflammasome, autophagy, genetic and epigenetics changes is discretely explained in simple terms. Present available anti-diabetic therapeutic strategies commercialized and their limitations which are needed to be acknowledged are addressed in the current review. In particular, the pre-eminence of nanotechnology-based approaches to nullify the inadequacy of conventional anti-diabetic therapeutics and heterogeneous nanoparticulated systems exploited in diabetic researches are also discretely mentioned and are also listed in a tabular format in the review. Additionally, as a future prospect of nanotechnology, the review presents several strategic hypotheses to ameliorate the austerity of T2D by an engineered smart targeted nano-delivery system. In detail, an effort has been made to hypothesize novel nanotechnological based therapeutic strategies, which exploits previously described inflammasome, autophagic target points. Utilizing graphical description it is explained how a smart targeted nano-delivery system could promote β-cell growth and development by inducing the Wnt signaling pathway (inhibiting Gsk3β), inhibiting inflammasome (inhibiting NLRP3), and activating autophagic target points (protecting Atg3/Atg7 complex from oxidative stress) thereby might ameliorate the severity of T2D. Additionally, several targeting molecules associated with autophagic and epigenetic factors are also highlighted, which can be exploited in future diabetic research.

Brucine-loaded transliposomes nanogel for topical delivery in skin cancer: statistical optimization, in vitro and dermatokinetic evaluation

The aim of the present study was to develop, optimize brucine-loaded transliposomes (BRC-TL) formulation for dermal delivery of brucine for skin cancer. The BRC-TL formulations were evaluated for vesicle size, entrapment efficiency, and in vitro drug release. The optimized formulation was further evaluated for skin penetration by confocal laser microscopy and dermatokinetic study. The optimized BRC-TL formulation presented sealed lamellar shaped vesicles, with vesicles size, polydispersity index, entrapment efficiency, and in vitro drug release of 136.20 ± 2.87 nm, 0.354 ± 0.02, 86.01 ± 1.27%, and 83.09 ± 2.07%, respectively. Ex vivo permeation study showed that, developed BRC-TL formulation had a 2.4-fold increment in permeation as compared to BRC suspension. Texture analysis showed that the BRC-TL gel presented firmness of 158.91 g, consistency of 615.03 g/s, cohesiveness of  - 115.26 g and a viscosity index of  - 472.05 g/s. The confocal images of rat skin clearly showed the deeper penetration of rhodamine B-loaded TL formulation as compared to the Rhodamine B-hydro alcoholic solution. The optimized BRC-TL formulation demonstrated significantly higher cytotoxicity than placebo liposome and BRC suspension (P < 0.05). Further, the BRC-TL nanogel treated rat skin showed a substantial increase in C_{Skin max} and AUC_0-8 in comparison to rat skin treated with BRC conventional gel (P < 0.05). The data revealed that the developed TLs formulation could be a promising drug nanocarrier for brucine dermal delivery in the treatment of skin cancer.

Optimization of valencene containing lipid vesicles for boosting the transungual delivery of itraconazole

The objective of the present study was to prepare valencene (sesquiterpene) containing invasomes for itraconazole (ITZ) transungual delivery using central composite design. The phospholipid (X ₁) and valencene (X ₂) were selected as an independent variables, while vesicles size (Y ₁), entrapment efficiency (Y ₂) and in vitro drug release (Y ₃) were chosen as dependent variables. The antifungal activity of optimized formulation was screened against Trichophyton rubrum, a common causative onychomycosis pathogen, by cup plate method. The optimized ITZ-loaded invasomes formulation presented vesicles size of 176.8 ± 6.03 nm, entrapment efficiency of 83.21 ± 4.11% and in vitro drug release of 75.22 ± 5.03%. The ITZ-loaded invasomes gel formulation showed good homogeneity, pH 6.5 ± 0.23, viscosity 7.33 ± 0.67 Pa s and drug content 94.13 ± 1.13%. The spreadability and extrudability of developed ITZ-loaded invasomes gel were found to be 7.85 ± 0.24 gcm/s and 162 ± 2.74 g, respectively. The ITZ-loaded invasomes gel presented 71.11 ± 3.65% cumulative permeation of drug via goat hooves. The in vitro antifungal activity depicted that the ITZ-loaded invasomes gel and marketed preparation were presented zone of inhibition of 21.42 mm and 10.64 mm against T. rubrum respectively. Hence the prepared ITZ-loaded invasomes formulation could therefore be a promising topical dosage to mitigate the indications and hasten the cure for onychomycosis than conventional available therapies.

Nanotechnology in the Treatment of Diabetic Complications: A Comprehensive Narrative Review

In today's society, the prevention and treatment of diabetes mellitus and its subsequent complications have brought trouble to human beings. Complications caused by diabetes bring not only physical and mental pain to patients but also a heavy economic burden to families. And once diabetic complications occur, they are often irreversible and very difficult. At present, some studies suggest that nanotechnology can treat some diabetic complications. This paper reviews the application of nanotechnology in the repair of diabetic segmental bone injury, the healing of diabetic skin ulcers, the therapeutic effect, and improvement strategies and deficiencies of nanotechnology in diabetic complications.

Molecular docking and statistical optimization of taurocholate-stabilized galactose anchored bilosomes for the enhancement of sofosbuvir absorption and hepatic relative targeting efficiency

The work aimed to improve both absorption and hepatic availability of sofosbuvir. Bilosomes and galactose-anchored bilosomes were investigated as potential nanocarriers for this purpose. Sofosbuvir is a class III drug with high solubility and low permeability. Thus, the drug entrapment into lipid-based galactose-anchored carriers would enhance drug permeability and improve its liver availability. The galactosylated taurocholate was designed and synthesized based on molecular docking studies, where both galactose and taurocholate molecules were connected in a way to avoid affecting crucial interactions and avoid steric clashes with their cellular uptake receptors. The suggested nano-carriers were prepared using a thin-film hydration technique with sodium taurocholate and span 60 as stabilizers. The prepared formulae were statistically optimized using a central composite design. The optimized plain and galactosylated formulae, composed of SAA to drug ratio of 1:1 w/w and sodium taurocholate to span ratio of 10:1 w/w, have a vesicular size, zeta potential and entrapment efficiency in the range of 140-150 nm, -50 mV and 85%, respectively. The optimized formulae were lyophilized to increase their physical stability and facilitate accurate drug dosing. In vivo results showed that Sofosbuvir availability in the liver was significantly increased after oral administration of the plain and the galactosylated bilosomal formulae when compared to the oral drug solution with relative targeting efficiencies (RTIs) of 1.51 and 3.66, respectively. These findings confirmed the hypothesis of considering the galactosylated bilosomes a promising nanocarrier to efficiently target sofosbuvir to the liver.

Lipid vesicles: A versatile drug delivery platform for dermal and transdermal applications

Topical and transdermal application of active pharmaceutical ingredients to the skin is an attractive strategy being explored by formulation scientists to treat disease conditions rather than the oral drug delivery. Several approaches have been attempted, and many of them have emerged with significant clinical potential. However, the delivery of drugs across the skin is an arduous task due to permeation limiting barriers. It, therefore, requires the aid of external agents or carrier systems for efficient permeation. Lipid-based vesicular systems are carriers for the transport of drugs through the stratum corneum (dermal drug delivery) and into the bloodstream for systemic action (transdermal drug delivery) overcoming the barrier properties. This review article describes the various vesicular systems reported for skin delivery of actives with relevant case studies. The vesicular systems presented here are in the order of their advent from conventional systems to the advanced lipid vesicles. The design and development of drugs in vesicular systems have brought a new dimension to the treatment of disease conditions overcoming the permeation limiting barriers, thus improving its efficacy.

Effect of Hibiscus sabdariffa and Zingiber officinale on the antihypertensive activity and pharmacokinetic of losartan in hypertensive rats

The present study aimed to determine the effect of Hibiscus sabdariffa and Zingiber officinale on antihypertensive activity and pharmacokinetic of losartan in hypertensive rats.Hypertension was induced in rats by oral administration of L-NAME (40 mg/kg per day). Pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of losartan were evaluated without and with herbal treatment in hypertensive rats.Treatment of hypertensive rats with investigated herbs substantially reduced systolic blood pressure (SBP), and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) of rats. Treatment of rats (n = 5) with L-NAME plus H. sabdariffa plus losartan and L-NAME plus Z. officinale plus losartan reduced SBP by 16.20% and 14.88% and DBP by 14.82% and 17.52% respectively after 12 h, as compared to L-NAME alone treated rats. In a pharmacokinetic study, the Cmax and AUC0-t of losartan in L-NAME plus H. sabdariffa plus losartan and L-NAME plus Z. officinale plus losartan treated rats was increased by 0.7, 1.99 and 1.51, 3.00 fold respectively in comparison to the Cmax and AUC0-t obtained for L-NAME plus losartan treated group. In conclusion, both the investigated herbs significantly increased the antihypertensive effect and plasma concentration of losartan in L-NAME induced hypertensive rats. The current study predicted that the herb-drug interaction between H. sabdariffa-losartan and Z. officinale-losartan could occur; hence these results in rats may warrant further studies in humans, either in humans or in in vitro human liver microsomes.

Preparation and optimization of fisetin loaded glycerol based soft nanovesicles by Box-Behnken design

The present study focused on the development and optimization of glycerosomes for dermal delivery of fisetin. The fisetin loaded glycerosomes formulation was optimized by Box-Behnken design. The independent variables were the lipoid S 100, glycerol, and sonication time, whereas the dependent variables were the vesicles size, entrapment efficiency, and flux. The mechanism of skin penetration of fisetin loaded glycerosomes formulation was determined by the DSC and FTIR studies. Confocal scanning microscopy was used to detect the penetration ability of glycerosomes. The optimized fisetin loaded glycerosomes formulation was converted into a Carbopol® gel matrix, and the latter was analyzed for various parameters. The optimized formulation of glycerosomes presented vesicles size, entrapment efficiency and flux of 138.8 ± 4.09 nm, 86.41 ± 2.95% and 5.04 ± 0.17 µg/cm²/h, respectively. The transmission electron microscopy of optimized fisetin loaded formulation revealed the spherical and sealed structure of glycerosomes vesicles. The confocal study confirmed that the Rhodamine B incorporated glycerosomes penetrated up to deeper layers of skin. The DSC and FTIR studies revealed that the hydration of skin layers and skin lipid fluidization could be the penetration mechanism of fisetin glycerosomes formulation. The optimized fisetin loaded glycerosomes gel formulation presented a flux of 4.24 ± 0.14 μg/cm²/h, and exhibited zero-order release kinetics. The texture analysis of fisetin glycerosomes gel displayed a sufficient hardness, consistency, cohesiveness, and index of viscosity. It was concluded that the prepared fisetin loaded glycerosomes gel was suitable for the dermal application.

Hyaluronic acid-functionalized bilosomes for targeted delivery of tripterine to inflamed area with enhancive therapy on arthritis

Arthritis treatment has been challenging because of low drug exposure to the articular cavity. This study was intended to develop hyaluronic acid (HA)-functionalized bilosomes for targeted delivery of tripterine (Tri), an antiphlogistic phytomedicine, to the inflamed joint via ligand-receptor interaction. Tri-loaded bilosomes (Tri-BLs) with cationic lipid (DOTAP) were prepared by a thin film hydration method followed by HA coating to form HA@Tri-BLs. HA@Tri-BLs were then characterized by particle size (PS), entrapment efficiency (EE), and structural morphology. The in vitro drug release, hemocompatibility test and cellular uptake were performed to examine the formulation performances of HA@Tri-BLs. The in vivo pharmacokinetics and antiarthritic efficacy were evaluated in arthritic models, respectively. The obtained HA@Tri-BLs possessed a PS of 118.5 nm around with an EE of 99.56%. HA@Tri-BLs exhibited excellent cellular uptake and targeted delivery efficiency for Tri, which resulted in elongation of circulatory residence time and enhancement of intra-arthritic bioavailability (799.9% relative to Tri solution). The in vivo antiarthritic efficacy of HA@Tri-BLs was also significantly superior to uncoated Tri-BLs that gave rise to obvious inflammation resolution. Our findings suggest that HA-functionalized bilosomes are a promising vehicle for articular delivery of antiphlogistic drugs to potentiate their efficacy.

Carotenoid-loaded nanocarriers: A comprehensive review

Carotenoids retain plenty of health benefits and attracting much attention recently, but they have less resistance to processing stresses, easily oxidized and chemically unstable. Additionally, their application in food and pharmaceuticals are restricted due to some limitations such as poor bioavailability, less solubility and quick release. Nanoencapsulation techniques can be used to protect the carotenoids and to uphold their original characteristics during processing, storage and digestion, improve their physiochemical properties and enhance their health promoting effects. The importance of nanocarriers in foods and pharmaceuticals cannot be denied. This review comprehensively covers recent advances in nanoencapsulation of carotenoids with biopolymeric nanocarriers (polysaccharides and proteins), and lipid-based nanocarriers, their functionalities, aptness and innovative developments in preparation strategies. Furthermore, the present state of the art encapsulation of different carotenoids via biopolymeric and lipid-based nanocarriers have been enclosed and tabulated well. Nanoencapsulation has a vast range of applications for protection of carotenoids. Polysaccharides in combination with different proteins can offer a great avenue to achieve the desired formulation for encapsulation of carotenoids by using different nanoencapsulation strategies. In terms of lipid based nanocarriers, solid lipid nanoparticles and nanostructure lipid carriers are proving as the encouraging candidates for entrapment of carotenoids. Additionally, nanoliposomes and nanoemulsion are also promising and novel-vehicles for the protection of carotenoids against challenging aspects as well as offering an effectual controlled release on the targeted sites. In the future, further studies could be conducted for exploring the application of nanoencapsulated systems in food and gastrointestinal tract (GIT) for industrial applications.

Role of nanostructures in improvising oral medicine

The most preferable mode of drugs administration is via the oral route but physiological barriers such as pH, enzymatic degradation etc. limit the absolute use of this route. Herein lies the importance of nanotechnology having a wide range of applications in the field of nano-medicine, particularly in drug delivery systems. The exclusive properties particularly small size and high surface area (which can be modified as required), exhibited by these nanoparticlesrender these structures more suitable for the purpose of drug delivery. Various nanostructures, like liposomes, dendrimers, mesoporous silica nanoparticles, etc. have been designed for the said purpose. These nanostructures have several advantages over traditional administration of medicine. Apart from overcoming the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics limitations of many potential therapeutic molecules, they may also be useful for advanced drug delivery purposes like targeted drug delivery, controlled release, enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. In this review, we attempt to describe an up-to-date knowledge on various strategically devised nanostructures to overcome the problems related to oral drug administration.

Fisetin loaded binary ethosomes for management of skin cancer by dermal application on UV exposed mice

Fisetin loaded binary ethosomes were prepared and optimized using Box-Behnken design for dermal application to alleviate skin cancer. The prepared formulations were evaluated for vesicle size, entrapment efficiency and flux of fisetin. Additionally, the optimized formulation was further evaluated by transmission electron microscopy, confocal laser microscopy, vesicles-skin interaction, dermatokinetic study and DPPH (2, 2-diphenyl-1-picryl-hydrazyl) assay. The in vivo study was carried out for the evaluation of tumor incidence, pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-1α, lipid peroxidation values, glutathione content and catalase activity in mice. The optimized binary ethosomes formulation presented sealed unilamellar shaped vesicles, with vesicles size, entrapment efficiency and flux of 99.89 ± 3.24 nm, 89.23 ± 2.13% and 1.01 ± 0.03 µg/cm²/h respectively. The confocal images of rat skin clearly illustrated the deeper penetration of rhodamine B loaded binary ethosomes formulation. Further, the binary ethosomes gel treated rat skin showed substantial increase in C_{Skin max} and AUC_0-8 in comparison to rat skin treated with conventional gel. In vivo study revealed that the mice pre-treated with fisetin binary ethosomes gel caused marked decrease in the levels of TNF-α and IL-1α as compared to the mice exposed to UV only. Further the binary ethosomes gel treated mice group had demonstrated less percentage of tumour incidences (49%) as compared to mice treated with UV only (96% tumour incidence). The novelty of the work lies in successful optimization of formulation using Box-Behnken design and characterization of binary ethosomes carrier of fisetin and demonstration of improved dermal delivery of the same. The overall data suggest that the fisetin loaded binary ethosomes formulation is a potential dermal delivery system for the management of skin cancer.

Bile Acids and Their Derivatives as Potential Modifiers of Drug Release and Pharmacokinetic Profiles

Bile acids have received considerable interest in the drug delivery research due to their peculiar physicochemical properties and biocompatibility. The main advantage of bile acids as drug absorption enhancers is their ability to act as both drug solubilizing and permeation-modifying agents. Therefore, bile acids may improve bioavailability of drugs whose absorption-limiting factors include either poor aqueous solubility or low membrane permeability. Besides, bile acids may withstand the gastrointestinal impediments and aid in the transporter-mediated absorption of physically complexed or chemically conjugated drug molecules. These biomolecules may increase the drug bioavailability also at submicellar levels by increasing the solubility and dissolution rate of non-polar drugs or through the partition into the membrane and increase of membrane fluidity and permeability. Most bile acid-induced effects are mediated by the nuclear receptors that activate transcriptional networks, which then affect the expression of a number of target genes, including those for membrane transport proteins, affecting the bioavailability of a number of drugs. Besides micellar solubilization, there are many other types of interactions between bile acids and drug molecules, which can influence the drug transport across the biological membranes. Most common drug-bile salt interaction is ion-pairing and the formed complexes may have either higher or lower polarity compared to the drug molecule itself. Furthermore, the hydroxyl and carboxyl groups of bile acids can be utilized for the covalent conjugation of drugs, which changes their physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties. Bile acids can be utilized in the formulation of conventional dosage forms, but also of novel micellar, vesicular and polymer-based therapeutic systems. The availability of bile acids, along with their simple derivatization procedures, turn them into attractive building blocks for the design of novel pharmaceutical formulations and systems for the delivery of drugs, biomolecules and vaccines. Although toxic properties of hydrophobic bile acids have been described, their side effects are mostly produced when present in supraphysiological concentrations. Besides, minor structural modifications of natural bile acids may lead to the creation of bile acid derivatives with the reduced toxicity and preserved absorption-enhancing activity.

Bile Acids and Their Derivatives as Potential Modifiers of Drug Release and Pharmacokinetic Profiles

Bile acids have received considerable interest in the drug delivery research due to their peculiar physicochemical properties and biocompatibility. The main advantage of bile acids as drug absorption enhancers is their ability to act as both drug solubilizing and permeation-modifying agents. Therefore, bile acids may improve bioavailability of drugs whose absorption-limiting factors include either poor aqueous solubility or low membrane permeability. Besides, bile acids may withstand the gastrointestinal impediments and aid in the transporter-mediated absorption of physically complexed or chemically conjugated drug molecules. These biomolecules may increase the drug bioavailability also at submicellar levels by increasing the solubility and dissolution rate of non-polar drugs or through the partition into the membrane and increase of membrane fluidity and permeability. Most bile acid-induced effects are mediated by the nuclear receptors that activate transcriptional networks, which then affect the expression of a number of target genes, including those for membrane transport proteins, affecting the bioavailability of a number of drugs. Besides micellar solubilization, there are many other types of interactions between bile acids and drug molecules, which can influence the drug transport across the biological membranes. Most common drug-bile salt interaction is ion-pairing and the formed complexes may have either higher or lower polarity compared to the drug molecule itself. Furthermore, the hydroxyl and carboxyl groups of bile acids can be utilized for the covalent conjugation of drugs, which changes their physicochemical and pharmacokinetic properties. Bile acids can be utilized in the formulation of conventional dosage forms, but also of novel micellar, vesicular and polymer-based therapeutic systems. The availability of bile acids, along with their simple derivatization procedures, turn them into attractive building blocks for the design of novel pharmaceutical formulations and systems for the delivery of drugs, biomolecules and vaccines. Although toxic properties of hydrophobic bile acids have been described, their side effects are mostly produced when present in supraphysiological concentrations. Besides, minor structural modifications of natural bile acids may lead to the creation of bile acid derivatives with the reduced toxicity and preserved absorption-enhancing activity.

Development and biological evaluation of vesicles containing bile salt of telmisartan for the treatment of diabetic nephropathy

The aim of present study was to develop and evaluate vesicles containing bile salt formulation of telmisartan for the treatment of diabetic nephropathy. Different vesicles containing bile salt formulations were developed by varying ratios of soybean phosphatidylcholine and sodium deoxycholate. Prepared formulations were characterized for their size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, morphology and entrapment efficiency. Further, the renoprotective outcome of optimized formulation was studied in streptozotocin-induced diabetic nephropathy rat model. Results of the present study demonstrated that the average vesicles size, polydispersity index, zeta potential and entrapment efficiency were found to be in the range of 64.98 ± 1.40 to 167.60 ± 6.46 nm, 0.02 ± 0.04 to 0.31 ± 0.01, -24.30 ± 1.39 to -42.60 ± 6.67 mV and 29.68 ± 1.08% to 77.21 ± 0.52%, respectively. Further, the best chosen formulation F4 presented vesicles size, polydispersity index, zeta potential and entrapment efficiency of 64.98 ± 1.40 nm, 0.24 ± 0.02, -35.40 ± 1.48 mV and 77.21 ± 0.52%, respectively. In addition, formulation F4 improved the biological indices in streptozotocin-induced diabetic nephropathy in rats. It was concluded that prepared formulation exerts a valuable results on diabetic nephropathy and it may be a potential pharmaceutical dosage form for the treatment of diabetic nephropathy.