Electrodeposition of nanocrystalline silver films and nanowires from the ionic liquid 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium trifluoromethylsulfonate

Analysis of mass transport in ionic liquids: a rotating disk electrode approach

Ionic Liquids are a promising alternative to water electrolytes for the electrodeposition of metals. These solvents have a much larger electrochemical window than water that expands the potential of electrodeposition. However, mass transport in Ionic Liquids is slow. The slow mass transport dramatically affects the rate of reactions at the solid-liquid interface, hampering the exploitation of Ionic Liquids in high-throughput electrodeposition processes. In this paper, we clarify the origin of such poor mass transport in the diffusion-advection (convection) regime. To determine the extent and the dynamics of the convection boundary layers, we performed Rotating Disk Electrode (RDE) experiments on model reactions along with the finite element simulation. Both the experiments and the finite element modelling showed the occurrence of peaks in the RDE curves even at relatively high rotation rates (up to 2000 rpm). The peak in the RDE is the fingerprint of partial diffusion control that happens for the relative extent of the diffusion and convection boundary layers. In looking for a close match between the experiments and the simulations, we found that the ohmic drop plays a critical role and must be considered in the calculation to find the best match with the experimental data. In the end, we have shown that the combined approach consisting of RDE experiments and finite elements modelling providing a tool to unravel of the structure of the diffusion and convection boundary layers both in dynamic and stationary conditions.

Influence of a silver salt on the nanostructure of a Au(111)/ionic liquid interface: an atomic force microscopy study and theoretical concepts

We combine in situ atomic force microscopy and non-equilibrium thermodynamics to investigate the Au(111)/electrolyte interface. Experiment and theory show that the concentration of solutes strongly influences the structure of the electrode/electrolyte interface.

Investigating the effect of ionic strength on the suppression of dendrite formation during metal electrodeposition

The effect of ionic strength on dendrite formation and suppression has been investigated in an organic solvent (acetonitrile containing TBAPF₆) and in the ionic liquid [EMIm][OTf].

Morphological dependence of silver electrodeposits investigated by changing the ionic liquid solvent and the deposition parameters

The low toxicity and environmentally compatible ionic liquids (ILs) are alternatives to the toxic and harmful cyanide-based baths used in industrial silver electrodeposition. Here, we report the successful galvanostatic electrodeposition of silver films using the air and water stable ILs 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium trifluoromethylsulfonate ([EMIM]TfO) and 1-H-3-methylimidazolium hydrogen sulphate ([HMIM(+)][HSO4(-)]) as solvents and AgTfO as the source of silver. The electrochemical deposition parameters were thoughtfully studied by cyclic voltammetry before deposition. The electrodeposits were characterized by scanning electron microscopy coupled with X-ray energy dispersive spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations were used to investigate the structural dynamic and energetic properties of AgTfO in both ILs. Cyclic voltammetry experiments revealed that the reduction of silver is a diffusion-controlled process. The morphology of the silver coatings obtained in [EMIM]TfO is independent of the applied current density, resulting in nodular electrodeposits grouped as crystalline clusters. However, the current density significantly influences the morphology of silver electrodeposits obtained in [HMIM(+)][HSO4(-)], thus evolving from dendrites at 15 mA cm(-2) to the coexistence of dendrites and columnar shapes at 30 mA cm(-2). These differences are probably due to the greater interaction of Ag(+) with [HSO4(-)] than with TfO(-), as indicated by the MD simulations. The morphology of Ag deposits is independent of the electrodeposition temperature for both ILs, but higher values of temperature promoted increased cluster sizes. Pure face-centred cubic polycrystalline Ag was deposited on the films with crystallite sizes on the nanometre scale. The morphological dependence of Ag electrodeposits obtained in the [HMIM(+)][HSO4(-)] IL on the current density applied opens up the opportunity to produce different and predetermined Ag deposits.

Template-free electrodeposition of AlFe alloy nanowires from a room-temperature ionic liquid as an anode material for Li-ion batteries

AlFe alloy nanowires were directly electrodeposited on copper substrates from trimethylamine hydrochloride (TMHC)–AlCl₃ ionic liquids with small amounts of FeCl₃ at room temperature without templates. Coin cells composed of AlFe alloy nanowire electrodes and lithium foils were assembled to characterize the alloy electrochemical properties by galvanostatic charge/discharge tests. Effects of FeCl₃ concentration, potential and temperature on the alloy morphology, composition and cyclic performance were examined. Addition of Fe into the alloy changed the nanowires from a ‘hill-like’ bulk morphology to a free-standing morphology, and increased the coverage area of the alloy on Cu substrates. As an inactive element, Fe could also buffer the alloys' large volume changes during Li intercalation and deintercalation. AlFe alloy nanowires composed of a small amount of Fe with an average diameter of 140 nm exhibited an outstanding cyclic performance and delivered a specific capacity of about 570 mA h g⁻¹ after 50 cycles. This advanced template-free method for the direct preparation of high performance nanostructure AlFe alloy anode materials is quite simple and inexpensive, which presents a promising prospect for practical application in Li-ion batteries.

Ionic liquids for nano- and microstructures preparation. Part 2: Application in synthesis

Ionic liquids (ILs) are widely applied to prepare metal nanoparticles and 3D semiconductor microparticles. Generally, they serve as a structuring agent or reaction medium (solvent), however it was also demonstrated that ILs can play a role of a co-solvent, metal precursor, reducing as well as surface modifying agent. The crucial role and possible types of interactions between ILs and growing particles have been presented in the Part 1 of this review paper. Part 2 of the paper gives a comprehensive overview of recent experimental studies dealing with application of ionic liquids for preparation of metal and semiconductor based nano- and microparticles. A wide spectrum of preparation routes using ionic liquids is presented, including precipitation, sol-gel technique, hydrothermal method, nanocasting and ray-mediated methods (microwave, ultrasound, UV-radiation and γ-radiation). It was found that ionic liquids formed of a 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium [BMIM] combined with tetrafluoroborate [BF4], hexafluorophosphate [PF6], and bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide [Tf2N] are the most often used ILs in the synthesis of nano- and microparticles, due to their low melting temperature, low viscosity and good transportation properties. Nevertheless, examples of other IL classes with intrinsic nanoparticles stabilizing abilities such as phosphonium and ammonium derivatives are also presented. Experimental data revealed that structure of ILs (both anion and cation type) affects the size and shape of formed metal particles, and in some cases may even determine possibility of particles formation. The nature of the metal precursor determines its affinity to polar or nonpolar domains of ionic liquid, and therefore, the size of the nanoparticles depends on the size of these regions. Ability of ionic liquids to form varied extended interactions with particle precursor as well as other compounds presented in the reaction media (water, organic solvents etc.) provides nano- and microstructures with different morphologies (0D nanoparticles, 1D nanowires, rods, 2D layers, sheets, and 3D features of molecules). ILs interact efficiently with microwave irradiation, thus even small amount of IL can be employed to increase the dielectric constant of nonpolar solvents used in the synthesis. Thus, combining the advantages of ionic liquids and ray-mediated methods resulted in the development of new ionic liquid-assisted synthesis routes. One of the recently proposed approaches of semiconductor particles preparation is based on the adsorption of semiconductor precursor molecules at the surface of micelles built of ionic liquid molecules playing a role of a soft template for growing microparticles.

Electrodeposition in Ionic Liquids

Due to their attractive physico-chemical properties, ionic liquids (ILs) are increasingly used as deposition electrolytes. This review summarizes recent advances in electrodeposition in ILs and focuses on its similarities and differences with that in aqueous solutions. The electrodeposition in ILs is divided into direct and template-assisted deposition. We detail the direct deposition of metals, alloys and semiconductors in five types of ILs, including halometallate ILs, air- and water-stable ILs, deep eutectic solvents (DESs), ILs with metal-containing cations, and protic ILs. Template-assisted deposition of nanostructures and macroporous structures in ILs is also presented. The effects of modulating factors such as deposition conditions (current density, current density mode, deposition time, temperature) and electrolyte components (cation, anion, metal salts, additives, water content) on the morphology, compositions, microstructures and properties of the prepared materials are highlighted.

The electrodeposition of silver composites using deep eutectic solvents

Silver is an important metal for electronic connectors, however, it is extremely soft and wear can be a significant issue. This paper describes how improved wear resistant silver coatings can be obtained from the electrolytic deposition of silver from a solution of AgCl in an ethylene glycol/choline chloride based Deep Eutectic Solvent. An up to 10-fold decrease in the wear volume is observed by the incorporation of SiC or Al(2)O(3) particles. The work also addresses the fundamental aspect of speciation of silver chloride in solution using EXAFS to probe solution structure. The size but not the nature of the composite particles is seen to change the morphology and grain size of the silver deposit. Grain sizes are shown to be consistent with previous nucleation studies. The addition of LiF is found to significantly affect the deposit morphology and improve wear resistance.