Graphitized Carbon Nanofibers: new additive for the Negative Active Material of Lead Acid Batteries

Rechargeable Batteries for Grid Scale Energy Storage

Ever-increasing global energy consumption has driven the development of renewable energy technologies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution. Battery energy storage systems (BESS) with high electrochemical performance are critical for enabling renewable yet intermittent sources of energy such as solar and wind. In recent years, numerous new battery technologies have been achieved and showed great potential for grid scale energy storage (GSES) applications. However, their practical applications have been greatly impeded due to the gap between the breakthroughs achieved in research laboratories and the industrial applications. In addition, various complex applications call for different battery performances. Matching of diverse batteries to various applications is required to promote practical energy storage research achievement. This review provides in-depth discussion and comprehensive consideration in the battery research field for GSES. The overall requirements of battery technologies for practical applications with key parameters are systematically analyzed by generating standards and measures for GSES. We also discuss recent progress and existing challenges for some representative battery technologies with great promise for GSES, including metal-ion batteries, lead-acid batteries, molten-salt batteries, alkaline batteries, redox-flow batteries, metal-air batteries, and hydrogen-gas batteries. Moreover, we emphasize the importance of bringing emerging battery technologies from academia to industry. Our perspectives on the future development of batteries for GSES applications are provided.

Lead-Carbon Batteries toward Future Energy Storage: From Mechanism and Materials to Applications

The lead acid battery has been a dominant device in large-scale energy storage systems since its invention in 1859. It has been the most successful commercialized aqueous electrochemical energy storage system ever since. In addition, this type of battery has witnessed the emergence and development of modern electricity-powered society. Nevertheless, lead acid batteries have technologically evolved since their invention. Over the past two decades, engineers and scientists have been exploring the applications of lead acid batteries in emerging devices such as hybrid electric vehicles and renewable energy storage; these applications necessitate operation under partial state of charge. Considerable endeavors have been devoted to the development of advanced carbon-enhanced lead acid battery (i.e., lead-carbon battery) technologies. Achievements have been made in developing advanced lead-carbon negative electrodes. Additionally, there has been significant progress in developing commercially available lead-carbon battery products. Therefore, exploring a durable, long-life, corrosion-resistive lead dioxide positive electrode is of significance. In this review, the possible design strategies for advanced maintenance-free lead-carbon batteries and new rechargeable battery configurations based on lead acid battery technology are critically reviewed. Moreover, a synopsis of the lead-carbon battery is provided from the mechanism, additive manufacturing, electrode fabrication, and full cell evaluation to practical applications.

Graphical abstract

Increasing the oxygen-containing functional groups of oxidized multi-walled carbon nanotubes to improve high-rate-partial-state-of-charge performance

Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) with different oxygen functional groups were prepared from hot nitric acid reflux treatment. The acid-treated MWCNTs (a-MWCNTs) were introduced to negative active materials (NAMs) of lead-acid batteries (LABs) and the high-rate-partial-state-of-charge (HRPSoC) performance of the LABs was evaluated. A-MWCNTs with high quantities of carboxylic (COO⁻) and carbonyl (C Created by potrace 1.16, written by Peter Selinger 2001-2019 ]]> O) functional groups significantly improve the lead sulfate (PbSO₄) reduction to lead (Pb) and thereby improve HRPSoC cycle life. The addition of a-MWCNTs to NAMs is helpful for the formation of larger crystals of ternary lead sulfate (3BS). The improved LABs performance is due to the formation of a sponge crisscrossed rod-like structure at the negative plate in the presence of a-MWCNTs. This unique channels structure is conducive to the diffusion of the electrolyte into the negative plate and delays the PbSO₄ accumulation during HRPSoC cycles. The HRPSoC cycle life with a-MWCNTs is significantly prolonged up to the longest cycles of 39 580 from 19 712. In conclusion, oxygen-containing groups on the a-MWCNTs showed significant influence on the curing process and forming process and then improved HRPSoC performance.

Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) with different oxygen functional groups were prepared from hot nitric acid reflux treatment.

Applications of Carbon in Rechargeable Electrochemical Power Sources: A Review

Rechargeable power sources are an essential element of large-scale energy systems based on renewable energy sources. One of the major challenges in rechargeable battery research is the development of electrode materials with good performance and low cost. Carbon-based materials have a wide range of properties, high electrical conductivity, and overall stability during cycling, making them suitable materials for batteries, including stationary and large-scale systems. This review summarizes the latest progress on materials based on elemental carbon for modern rechargeable electrochemical power sources, such as commonly used lead–acid and lithium-ion batteries. Use of carbon in promising technologies (lithium–sulfur, sodium-ion batteries, and supercapacitors) is also described. Carbon is a key element leading to more efficient energy storage in these power sources. The applications, modifications, possible bio-sources, and basic properties of carbon materials, as well as recent developments, are described in detail. Carbon materials presented in the review include nanomaterials (e.g., nanotubes, graphene) and composite materials with metals and their compounds.

Enhancing the Performance of Motive Power Lead-Acid Batteries by High Surface Area Carbon Black Additives

The effects of carbon black specific surface area and morphology were investigated by characterizing four different carbon black additives and then evaluating the effect of adding them to the negative electrode of valve-regulated lead–acid batteries for electric bikes. Low-temperature performance, larger current discharge performance, charge acceptance, cycle life and water loss of the batteries with carbon black were studied. The results show that the addition of high-performance carbon black to the negative plate of lead–acid batteries has an important effect on the cycle performance at 100% depth-of-discharge conditions and the cycle life is 86.9% longer than that of the control batteries. The excellent performance of the batteries can be attributed to the high surface area carbon black effectively inhibiting the sulfation of the negative plate surface and improving the charge acceptance of the batteries.

Enhanced Performance of E-Bike Motive Power Lead-Acid Batteries with Graphene as an Additive to the Active Mass

The effects of both graphene nanoplatelets and reduced graphene oxide as additives to the negative active material in valve-regulated lead-acid batteries for electric bikes were investigated. Low-temperature performance, charge acceptance, cycle performance, and water loss were investigated. The test results show that the low-temperature performance, charge acceptance, and large-current discharge performance of the batteries with graphene additives were significantly improved compared to the control battery, and the cycle life under 100% depth of discharge condition was extended by more than 52% from 250 to 380 cycles. Meanwhile, the amount of water loss from the batteries with graphene changed only slightly compared with the control cells. The excellent performance of the batteries can be ascribed to the graphene promoting the negative-plate charge and discharge processes and suppressing the growth of lead sulfate crystals.