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Zhao Y, Gan Y, Chen J, Zheng H, Chang Y, Lin C. Recent reports on the sensing strategy and the On-site detection of illegal drugs. RSC Adv 2024; 14:6917-6929. [PMID: 38410368 PMCID: PMC10895702 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra06931a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/28/2024] Open
Abstract
In this review, works on the on-site detection of illegal drugs in recent years are summarised and discussed, most of which were published within the past five years. The detection methods are categorised as colourimetric, fluorescence, Raman spectrometry, ion mobility spectrometry, electrochemistry, and mass spectrometry. Also, strategies that are possibly suitable for on-site detection and the actual instrumentation to be used in the field are listed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security P.R.C. No. 18 Dongbeiwang West Road, Haidian District 100193 Beijing China
- Institute of Forensic Science of the Ministry of Public Security No. 17 Muxidi Nanli, West City District 100038 Beijing China
| | - Yumeng Gan
- Institute for Biomimetics and Soft Matter, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Soft Functional Materials Research, College of Physical Science and Technology, Xiamen University 9 Zengcuoan West Road 361005 Xiamen China
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surface Xiamen China
| | - Jun Chen
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security P.R.C. No. 18 Dongbeiwang West Road, Haidian District 100193 Beijing China
| | - Hui Zheng
- Key Laboratory of Drug Monitoring and Control, Drug Intelligence and Forensic Center, Ministry of Public Security P.R.C. No. 18 Dongbeiwang West Road, Haidian District 100193 Beijing China
| | - Ying Chang
- Institute of Forensic Science of the Ministry of Public Security No. 17 Muxidi Nanli, West City District 100038 Beijing China
| | - Changxu Lin
- Institute for Biomimetics and Soft Matter, Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Soft Functional Materials Research, College of Physical Science and Technology, Xiamen University 9 Zengcuoan West Road 361005 Xiamen China
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surface Xiamen China
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2
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Monari A, Cantalù S, Zanfrognini B, Brighenti V, Verri P, Zanardi C, Pellati F, Pigani L. An electrochemical approach for the prediction of Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid and total cannabinoid content in Cannabis sativa L. Analyst 2023; 148:4688-4697. [PMID: 37602722 DOI: 10.1039/d3an01090b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/22/2023]
Abstract
Two electrochemical sensors are proposed here for the first time for the fast screening of cannabinoids in Cannabis sativa L. plant material (inflorescences). The accurate control of cannabinoid content is important for discriminating between recreational, i.e. illegal, and fibre-type C. sativa samples, which differ mainly according to the amount of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (Δ9-THCA). Two screen printed electrodes obtained using different electrode materials were tested for the analysis of extracts from recreational and fibre-type C. sativa and their performance was compared with a consolidated method based on high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The voltammetric responses recorded in the different samples reflected the compositional differences of the recreational and fibre-type extracts in accordance with the results of HPLC analyses. Moreover, the quantification of Δ9-THCA and the total cannabinoid content on the basis of the intensity of the peaks of the voltammograms was possible through a simple and fast electrochemical procedure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandro Monari
- Department of Chemical and Geological Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy.
| | - Sara Cantalù
- Department of Chemical and Geological Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy.
| | - Barbara Zanfrognini
- Department of Chemical and Geological Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy.
| | - Virginia Brighenti
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy.
| | - Patrizia Verri
- Department of Biomedical, Metabolic and Neural Sciences, Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Chiara Zanardi
- Department of Molecular Sciences and Nanosystems, Ca' Foscari University of Venice, via Torino 155, 30170 Venice, Italy
- Institute for Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity, National Research Council, 40129 Bologna, Italy
| | - Federica Pellati
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy.
- Interdepartmental Research Centre of the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia BIOGEST-SITEIA, Piazzale Europa 1, 42124 Reggio Emilia, Italy
| | - Laura Pigani
- Department of Chemical and Geological Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, via G. Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy.
- Interdepartmental Research Centre of the University of Modena and Reggio Emilia BIOGEST-SITEIA, Piazzale Europa 1, 42124 Reggio Emilia, Italy
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Stelmaszczyk P, Kwaczyński K, Rudnicki K, Skrzypek S, Wietecha-Posłuszny R, Poltorak L. Nitrazepam and 7-aminonitrazepam studied at the macroscopic and microscopic electrified liquid-liquid interface. Mikrochim Acta 2023; 190:182. [PMID: 37052720 PMCID: PMC10101902 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-023-05739-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 04/14/2023]
Abstract
Two benzodiazepine type drugs, that is, nitrazepam and 7-aminonitrazepam, were studied at the electrified liquid-liquid interface (eLLI). Both drugs are illicit and act sedative in the human body and moreover are used as date rape drugs. Existence of the diazepine ring in the concerned chemicals structure and one additional amine group (for 7-aminonitrazepam) allows for the molecular charging below their pKa values, and hence, both drugs can cross the eLLI interface upon application of the appropriate value of the Galvani potential difference. Chosen molecules were studied at the macroscopic eLLI formed in the four electrode cell and microscopic eLLI formed within a microtip defined as the single pore having 25 μm in diameter. Microscopic eLLI was formed using only a few μL of the organic and the aqueous phase with the help of a 3D printed cell. Parameters such as limit of detection and voltammetric detection sensitivity are derived from the experimental data. Developed methodology was used to detect nitrazepam in pharmaceutical formulation and both drugs (nitrazepam and 7-aminonitrazepam) in spiked biological fluids (urine and blood).
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Affiliation(s)
- Paweł Stelmaszczyk
- Laboratory for Forensic Chemistry, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 2, 30-387, Krakow, Poland
| | - Karolina Kwaczyński
- Electrochemistry@Soft Interfaces Team, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403, Lodz, Poland
| | - Konrad Rudnicki
- Electrochemistry@Soft Interfaces Team, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403, Lodz, Poland
| | - Sławomira Skrzypek
- Electrochemistry@Soft Interfaces Team, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403, Lodz, Poland
| | - Renata Wietecha-Posłuszny
- Laboratory for Forensic Chemistry, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 2, 30-387, Krakow, Poland.
| | - Lukasz Poltorak
- Electrochemistry@Soft Interfaces Team, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Lodz, Tamka 12, 91-403, Lodz, Poland.
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4
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Kékedy-Nagy L, Perry JM, Little SR, Llorens OY, Shih SCC. An electrochemical aptasensor for Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol detection in saliva on a microfluidic platform. Biosens Bioelectron 2023; 222:114998. [PMID: 36549107 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2022.114998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 11/21/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
We present a novel "on-off", cost-effective, rapid electrochemical aptasensor combined with a microfluidics cartridge system for the detection of Δ9-THC (Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol) in human saliva via differential pulse voltammetry. The assay relied on the competitive binding between the Δ9-THC and a soluble redox indicator methylene blue, using an aptamer selected via FRELEX. We found that the aptasensor can detected 1 nM of Δ9-THC in PBS in a three-electrode cell system, while the sensitivity and both the dissociation constant (Kd) and association constant (Kb) were dependent on the aptamer density. The aptamer also showed great affinity towards Δ9-THC when tested against cannabinol and cannabidiol. The same limit of detection of 1 nM in PBS was achieved in small volume samples (∼60 μL) using the aptamer-modified gold screen-printed electrodes combined with the microfluidic cartridge setup, however, the presence of 10% raw human saliva had a negative effect which manifested in a 10-fold increase in the LOD due to interfering elements. Filtering the saliva, improved the tested volume to 50% and the LOD to 5 nM of Δ9-THC which is lower than the concentrations associated with impairment (6.5-32 nM). The aptasensor showed a good storage capability up to 3 days, however, the reusability significantly dropped from 10 cycles (freshly prepared) to 5 cycles. The results clearly demonstrate the feasibility of the aptasensor platform with the microfluidics chamber towards a point-of-care testing application for the detection of Δ9-THC in saliva.
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Affiliation(s)
- László Kékedy-Nagy
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd West, Montreal, Quebec, H3G1M8, Canada; Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, Quebec, H4B1R6, Canada
| | - James M Perry
- Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, Quebec, H4B1R6, Canada; Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, Quebec, H4B1R6, Canada
| | - Samuel R Little
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd West, Montreal, Quebec, H3G1M8, Canada; Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, Quebec, H4B1R6, Canada
| | - Oriol Y Llorens
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd West, Montreal, Quebec, H3G1M8, Canada; Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, Quebec, H4B1R6, Canada
| | - Steve C C Shih
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Blvd West, Montreal, Quebec, H3G1M8, Canada; Centre for Applied Synthetic Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, Quebec, H4B1R6, Canada; Department of Biology, Concordia University, 7141 Sherbrooke St. West, Montreal, Quebec, H4B1R6, Canada.
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5
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Preliminary evaluation of the use of a disposable electrochemical sensor for selective identification of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol by multivariate analysis. Microchem J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2022.108108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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6
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Heroin detection in a droplet hosted in a 3D printed support at the miniaturized electrified liquid-liquid interface. Sci Rep 2022; 12:18615. [PMID: 36329050 PMCID: PMC9633610 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-21689-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple sensing protocols for the detection of illicit drugs are needed. Electrochemical sensing is especially attractive in this respect, as its cost together with the analytical accuracy aspires to replace still frequently used colorimetric tests. In this work, we have shown that the interfacial transfer of protonated heroin can be followed at the electrified water-1,2-dichloroethane interface. We have comprehensively studied the interfacial behavior of heroin alone and in the presence of its major and abundant cutting agents, caffeine and paracetamol. To maximally increase developed sensing protocol applicability we have designed and 3D printed a platform requiring only a few microliters of the aqueous and the organic phase. The proposed sensing platform was equipped with a cavity hosting a short section of Ag/AgCl electrode, up to 20 µL of the aqueous phase and the end of the micropipette tip being used as a casing of a fused silica capillary having 25 µm as the internal pore diameter. The volume of the organic phase was equal to around 5 µL and was present inside the micropipette tip. We have shown that under optimized conditions heroin can be detected in the presence of caffeine and paracetamol existing in a sample with 10,000 times excess over the analyte of interest. The calculated limit of detection equal to 1.3 µM, linear dynamic range spanning to at least 50 µM, good reproducibility, and very low volume of needed sample is fully in line with forensic demands.
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7
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Harpaz D, Bernstein N, Namdar D, Eltzov E. Portable biosensors for rapid on-site determination of cannabinoids in cannabis, a review. Biotechnol Adv 2022; 61:108031. [PMID: 36058440 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2022.108031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Revised: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies highlight the therapeutic virtues of cannabidiol (CBD). Furthermore, due to their molecular enriched profiles, cannabis inflorescences are biologically superior to a single cannabinoid for the treatment of various health conditions. Thus, there is flourishing demand for Cannabis sativa varieties containing high levels of CBD. Additionally, legal regulations around the world restrict the cultivation and consumption of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)-rich cannabis plants for their psychotropic effects. Therefore, the use of cannabis varieties that are high in CBD is permitted as long as their THC content does not exceed a low threshold of 0.3%-0.5%, depending on the jurisdiction. These chemovars are legally termed 'hemp'. This controlled cannabinoid requirement highlights the need to detect low levels of THC, already in the field. In this review, cannabis profiling and the existing methods used for the detection of cannabinoids are firstly evaluated. Then, selected valuable biosensor technologies are discussed, which suggest portable, rapid, sensitive, reproducible, and reliable methods for on-site identification of cannabinoids levels, mainly THC. Recent cutting-edge techniques of promising potential usage for both cannabis and hemp analysis are identified, as part of the future cultivation and agricultural improvement of this crop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorin Harpaz
- Institute of Postharvest and Food Science, Department of Postharvest Science, Volcani Institute, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel; Institute of Biochemistry, Food Science and Nutrition, Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 76100, Israel.
| | - Nirit Bernstein
- Institute of Soil Water and Environmental Sciences, Volcani Institute, Agricultural Research Organization, POBox 6, Bet-Dagan 50250, Israel.
| | - Dvora Namdar
- Institute of Soil Water and Environmental Sciences, Volcani Institute, Agricultural Research Organization, POBox 6, Bet-Dagan 50250, Israel.
| | - Evgeni Eltzov
- Institute of Postharvest and Food Science, Department of Postharvest Science, Volcani Institute, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel.
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8
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Puiu M, Bala C. Affinity Assays for Cannabinoids Detection: Are They Amenable to On-Site Screening? BIOSENSORS 2022; 12:608. [PMID: 36005003 PMCID: PMC9405638 DOI: 10.3390/bios12080608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Roadside testing of illicit drugs such as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) requires simple, rapid, and cost-effective methods. The need for non-invasive detection tools has led to the development of selective and sensitive platforms, able to detect phyto- and synthetic cannabinoids by means of their main metabolites in breath, saliva, and urine samples. One may estimate the time passed from drug exposure and the frequency of use by corroborating the detection results with pharmacokinetic data. In this review, we report on the current detection methods of cannabinoids in biofluids. Fluorescent, electrochemical, colorimetric, and magnetoresistive biosensors will be briefly overviewed, putting emphasis on the affinity formats amenable to on-site screening, with possible applications in roadside testing and anti-doping control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mihaela Puiu
- R&D Center LaborQ, University of Bucharest, 4-12 Regina Elisabeta Blvd., 030018 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Camelia Bala
- R&D Center LaborQ, University of Bucharest, 4-12 Regina Elisabeta Blvd., 030018 Bucharest, Romania
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, University of Bucharest, 4-12 Regina Elisabeta Blvd., 030018 Bucharest, Romania
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Yap SHK, Pan J, Linh DV, Zhang X, Wang X, Teo WZ, Zamburg E, Tham CK, Yew WS, Poh CL, Thean AVY. Engineered Nucleotide Chemicapacitive Microsensor Array Augmented with Physics-Guided Machine Learning for High-Throughput Screening of Cannabidiol. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2107659. [PMID: 35521934 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202107659] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The recent legalization of cannabidiol (CBD) to treat neurological conditions such as epilepsy has sparked rising interest across global pharmaceuticals and synthetic biology industries to engineer microbes for sustainable synthetic production of medicinal CBD. Since the process involves screening large amounts of samples, the main challenge is often associated with the conventional screening platform that is time consuming, and laborious with high operating costs. Here, a portable, high-throughput Aptamer-based BioSenSing System (ABS3 ) is introduced for label-free, low-cost, fully automated, and highly accurate CBD concentrations' classification in a complex biological environment. The ABS3 comprises an array of interdigitated microelectrode sensors, each functionalized with different engineered aptamers. To further empower the functionality of the ABS3 , unique electrochemical features from each sensor are synergized using physics-guided multidimensional analysis. The capabilities of this ABS3 are demonstrated by achieving excellent CBD concentrations' classification with a high prediction accuracy of 99.98% and a fast testing time of 22 µs per testing sample using the optimized random forest (RF) model. It is foreseen that this approach will be the key to the realistic transformation from fundamental research to system miniaturization for diagnostics of disease biomarkers and drug development in the field of chemical/bioanalytics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Hui Kit Yap
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore, 117583, Singapore
| | - Jieming Pan
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore, 117583, Singapore
| | - Dao Viet Linh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore, 117583, Singapore
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
| | - Xiangyu Zhang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore, 117583, Singapore
| | - Xinghua Wang
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore, 117583, Singapore
| | - Wei Zhe Teo
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 8 Medical Drive, Singapore, 117597, Singapore
| | - Evgeny Zamburg
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore, 117583, Singapore
| | - Chen-Khong Tham
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore, 117583, Singapore
| | - Wen Shan Yew
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
- Department of Biochemistry, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 8 Medical Drive, Singapore, 117597, Singapore
| | - Chueh Loo Poh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore, 117583, Singapore
- NUS Synthetic Biology for Clinical and Technological Innovation (SynCTI), National University of Singapore, 28 Medical Drive, Singapore, 117456, Singapore
| | - Aaron Voon-Yew Thean
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore, 4 Engineering Drive 3, Singapore, 117583, Singapore
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Li Z, Shen F, Mishra RK, Wang Z, Zhao X, Zhu Z. Advances of Drugs Electroanalysis Based on Direct Electrochemical Redox on Electrodes: A Review. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2022; 54:269-314. [PMID: 35575782 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2022.2072679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The strong development of mankind is inseparable from the proper use of drugs, and the electroanalytical research of drugs occupies an important position in the field of analytical chemistry. This review mainly elaborates the research progress of drugs electroanalysis based on direct electrochemical redox on various electrodes for the recent decade from 2011 to 2021. At first, we summarize some frequently used electrochemical data processing and electrochemical mechanism research derivation methods in the literature. Then, according to the drug therapeutic and application/usage purposes, the research progress of drugs electrochemical analysis is classified and discussed, where we focus on drugs electrochemical reaction mechanism. At the same time, the comparisons of electrochemical sensing performance of the drugs on various electrodes from recent studies are listed, so that readers can more intuitively compare and understand the electroanalytical sensing performance of each modified electrode for each of the drug. Finally, this review discusses the shortcomings and prospects of the drugs electroanalysis based on direct electrochemical redox research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhanhong Li
- School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Feichen Shen
- School of Energy and Materials, Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, China
| | - Rupesh K Mishra
- Identify Sensors Biologics at Bindley Bioscience Center, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
- School of Material Science and Engineering, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Zifeng Wang
- School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
| | - Xueling Zhao
- School of Energy and Materials, Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhigang Zhu
- School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai, China
- School of Energy and Materials, Shanghai Polytechnic University, Shanghai, China
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11
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Amini K, Sepehrifard A, Valinasabpouri A, Safruk J, Angelone D, de Campos Lourenco T. Recent advances in electrochemical sensor technologies for THC detection-a narrative review. J Cannabis Res 2022; 4:12. [PMID: 35292105 PMCID: PMC8925211 DOI: 10.1186/s42238-022-00122-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the main psychoactive component and one of the most important medicinal compounds in cannabis. Whether in human body fluids and breath or in laboratory and field samples, rapid and easy detection of THC is crucial. It provides insights into the impact of THC on human organism and its medicinal benefits, it guides the cannabis growers to determine different stages of the growth of the plant in the field, and eventually it helps scientists in the laboratory to assure the quality of the products and determine their potency or better understand the product development procedures. The significance of fast THC detection in forensic analysis also cannot be overlooked. Electrochemical sensor technologies are currently in the focus of attention for fast, easy, and low-cost detection of THC. Method In this work, we review the recent advances in sensor technologies developed for the purpose of fast and accurate THC detection. The research works performed mostly in the past decade and those detecting THC directly without any derivatization were the main target of this review. The scope of this narrative review was the reports on detecting THC in synthetic samples and plants as well as oral fluid. Results Electrochemical sensor technologies are sensitive enough and have the potential for fast, easy, and low-cost detection of THC for roadside testing, THC trending in growing cannabis plants, THC product development and formulation for medical purposes, etc., and they can provide an alternative for costly chromatography and mass spectrometry-based methods. Conclusion The main challenges facing these sensors, however, are nonspecific interaction and the interference of compounds and species from the matrix. Special requirement for storing sensors modified with antibodies or proteins is another challenge in this field. Preparing long-lasting and reusable sensors is a field worthy of attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaveh Amini
- Selective Lab Inc., Richmond Hill, ON, Canada.
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12
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Papaioannou GC, Karastogianni S, Girousi S. Development of an Electrochemical Sensor Using a Modified Carbon Paste Electrode with Silver Nanoparticles Capped with Saffron for Monitoring Mephedrone. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 22:1625. [PMID: 35214527 PMCID: PMC8878875 DOI: 10.3390/s22041625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Revised: 02/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Mephedrone, also known as 4-methylmethcathinone, is growing into a prominent recreational drug for young people. When it came to detecting mephedrone, limited efforts were made using electrochemical sensors. As a result, this application depicts the fabrication of a new, sensitive, selective, and economical electrochemical sensor capable of detecting mephedrone by using silver nanoparticles capped with saffron produced through electropolymerization to modify carbon paste electrodes (CPEs). Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) were capped with saffron (AgNPs@Sa) using a green method. AgNPs@Sa were studied using electron scanning microscopy (SEM) and UV-vis spectroscopy. The sensor was evaluated under the optimum condition to determine its analytical features. The results showed that this procedure had a wide linear range, low detection limit and sufficient reproducibility. Furthermore, the sensor posed sufficient stability. Moreover, it was applied in the determination of mephedrone in urine samples, showing the potential applicability of this electrochemical sensor in real sample analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sophia Karastogianni
- Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, Chemistry Department, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece; (G.C.P.); (S.G.)
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13
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Ortega GA, Ahmed SR, Tuteja SK, Srinivasan S, Rajabzadeh AR. A biomolecule-free electrochemical sensing approach based on a novel electrode modification technique: Detection of ultra-low concentration of Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol in saliva by turning a sample analyte into a sensor analyte. Talanta 2022; 236:122863. [PMID: 34635245 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2021.122863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 09/05/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Cannabis is currently one of the most consumed drugs in many countries. Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the principal psychoactive component of this drug and is present in saliva after consumption. This paper reports a novel biomolecule-free electrochemical approach to detect an ultra-low level of THC in saliva using modified electrodes with molecules of the same analyte (THC) that are detected later via square wave voltammetry. The results from this research revealed that the electrodeposition of THC on the working electrode (sensor analyte) could highly enhance the limit of detection by improving the affinity of the THC molecules present in the sample (sample analyte) to the sensing electrode surface. Detailed descriptions about the optimization of the sensor and its performance in simple media, such as PBS, and complex media, such as simulated and real saliva, are provided. This novel and yet simple electrochemical-based sensing strategy allowed for a low limit of detection of 1.6 ng/mL THC in simulated and real saliva, distinguishing concentrations ranging from 2 to 25 ng/mL, making this technology viable for a real-world application such as roadside testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Greter A Ortega
- School of Engineering Practice and Technology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West Hamilton, ON, L8S 4L8, Canada
| | - Syed Rahin Ahmed
- School of Engineering Practice and Technology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West Hamilton, ON, L8S 4L8, Canada
| | - Satish K Tuteja
- School of Engineering Practice and Technology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West Hamilton, ON, L8S 4L8, Canada
| | - Seshasai Srinivasan
- School of Engineering Practice and Technology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West Hamilton, ON, L8S 4L8, Canada.
| | - Amin Reza Rajabzadeh
- School of Engineering Practice and Technology, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West Hamilton, ON, L8S 4L8, Canada.
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14
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Pillai S, Upadhyay A, Sayson D, Nguyen BH, Tran SD. Advances in Medical Wearable Biosensors: Design, Fabrication and Materials Strategies in Healthcare Monitoring. Molecules 2021; 27:165. [PMID: 35011400 PMCID: PMC8746599 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27010165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 12/19/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In the past decade, wearable biosensors have radically changed our outlook on contemporary medical healthcare monitoring systems. These smart, multiplexed devices allow us to quantify dynamic biological signals in real time through highly sensitive, miniaturized sensing platforms, thereby decentralizing the concept of regular clinical check-ups and diagnosis towards more versatile, remote, and personalized healthcare monitoring. This paradigm shift in healthcare delivery can be attributed to the development of nanomaterials and improvements made to non-invasive biosignal detection systems alongside integrated approaches for multifaceted data acquisition and interpretation. The discovery of new biomarkers and the use of bioaffinity recognition elements like aptamers and peptide arrays combined with the use of newly developed, flexible, and conductive materials that interact with skin surfaces has led to the widespread application of biosensors in the biomedical field. This review focuses on the recent advances made in wearable technology for remote healthcare monitoring. It classifies their development and application in terms of electrochemical, mechanical, and optical modes of transduction and type of material used and discusses the shortcomings accompanying their large-scale fabrication and commercialization. A brief note on the most widely used materials and their improvements in wearable sensor development is outlined along with instructions for the future of medical wearables.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sangeeth Pillai
- McGill Craniofacial Tissue Engineering and Stem Cells Laboratory, Faculty of Dentistry, McGill University, 3640 University Street, Montreal, QC H3A 0C7, Canada; (S.P.); (A.U.); (D.S.)
| | - Akshaya Upadhyay
- McGill Craniofacial Tissue Engineering and Stem Cells Laboratory, Faculty of Dentistry, McGill University, 3640 University Street, Montreal, QC H3A 0C7, Canada; (S.P.); (A.U.); (D.S.)
| | - Darren Sayson
- McGill Craniofacial Tissue Engineering and Stem Cells Laboratory, Faculty of Dentistry, McGill University, 3640 University Street, Montreal, QC H3A 0C7, Canada; (S.P.); (A.U.); (D.S.)
| | - Bich Hong Nguyen
- Department of Pediatrics, CHU Sainte Justine Hospital, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada;
| | - Simon D. Tran
- McGill Craniofacial Tissue Engineering and Stem Cells Laboratory, Faculty of Dentistry, McGill University, 3640 University Street, Montreal, QC H3A 0C7, Canada; (S.P.); (A.U.); (D.S.)
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15
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Yu H, Lee H, Cheong J, Woo SW, Oh J, Oh HK, Lee JH, Zheng H, Castro CM, Yoo YE, Kim MG, Cheon J, Weissleder R, Lee H. A rapid assay provides on-site quantification of tetrahydrocannabinol in oral fluid. Sci Transl Med 2021; 13:eabe2352. [PMID: 34669441 PMCID: PMC9126021 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abe2352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the primary psychoactive ingredient of cannabis, impairs cognitive and motor function in a concentration-dependent fashion. Drug testing is commonly performed for employment and law enforcement purposes; however, available tests produce low-sensitive binary results (lateral flow assays) or have long turnaround (gas chromatography–mass spectrometry). To enable on-site THC quantification in minutes, we developed a rapid assay for oral THC analysis called EPOCH (express probe for on-site cannabis inhalation). EPOCH features distinctive sensor design such as a radial membrane and transmission optics, all contained in a compact cartridge. This integrated approach permitted assay completion within 5 min with a detection limit of 0.17 ng/ml THC, which is below the regulatory guideline (1 ng/ml). As a proof of concept for field testing, we applied EPOCH to assess oral fluid samples from cannabis users (n = 43) and controls (n = 43). EPOCH detected oral THC in all specimens from cannabis smokers (median concentration, 478 ng/ml) and THC-infused food consumers. Longitudinal monitoring showed a fast drop in THC concentrations within the first 6 hours of cannabis smoking (half-life, 1.4 hours).
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Affiliation(s)
- Hojeong Yu
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Center for Nanomedicine, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul 03722, South Korea
| | - Hoyeon Lee
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physics and Chemistry, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 61005, South Korea
| | - Jiyong Cheong
- Center for Nanomedicine, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul 03722, South Korea
- Graduate Program of Nano Biomedical Engineering (NanoBME), Advanced Science Institute, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, South Korea
| | - Sang Won Woo
- Department of Nano Manufacturing Technology, Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials, Daejeon 34103, South Korea
| | - Juhyun Oh
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Hyun-Kyung Oh
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physics and Chemistry, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 61005, South Korea
| | - Jae-Hyun Lee
- Center for Nanomedicine, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul 03722, South Korea
- Graduate Program of Nano Biomedical Engineering (NanoBME), Advanced Science Institute, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, South Korea
| | - Hui Zheng
- Biostatistics Center, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Cesar M. Castro
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Yeong-Eun Yoo
- Department of Nano Manufacturing Technology, Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials, Daejeon 34103, South Korea
| | - Min-Gon Kim
- Department of Chemistry, School of Physics and Chemistry, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology, Gwangju 61005, South Korea
| | - Jinwoo Cheon
- Center for Nanomedicine, Institute for Basic Science (IBS), Seoul 03722, South Korea
- Graduate Program of Nano Biomedical Engineering (NanoBME), Advanced Science Institute, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, South Korea
- Department of Chemistry, Yonsei University, Seoul 03722, South Korea
| | - Ralph Weissleder
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Systems Biology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Hakho Lee
- Center for Systems Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital Research Institute, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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16
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Zhang Y, You Z, Hou C, Liu L, Xiao A. An Electrochemical Sensor Based on Amino Magnetic Nanoparticle-Decorated Graphene for Detection of Cannabidiol. NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11092227. [PMID: 34578543 PMCID: PMC8467804 DOI: 10.3390/nano11092227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
For detection of cannabidiol (CBD)—an important ingredient in Cannabis sativa L.—amino magnetic nanoparticle-decorated graphene (Fe3O4-NH2-GN) was prepared in the form of nanocomposites, and then modified on a glassy carbon electrode (GCE), resulting in a novel electrochemical sensor (Fe3O4-NH2-GN/GCE). The applied Fe3O4-NH2 nanoparticles and GN exhibited typical structures and intended surface groups through characterizations via transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM), and Raman spectroscopy. The Fe3O4-NH2-GN/GCE showed the maximum electrochemical signal for CBD during the comparison of fabricated components via the cyclic voltammetry method, and was systematically investigated in the composition and treatment of components, pH, scan rate, and quantitative analysis ability. Under optimal conditions, the Fe3O4-NH2-GN/GCE exhibited a good detection limit (0.04 μmol L−1) with a linear range of 0.1 μmol L−1 to 100 μmol L−1 (r2 = 0.984). In the detection of CBD in the extract of C. sativa leaves, the results of the electrochemical method using the Fe3O4-NH2-GN/GCE were in good agreement with those of the HPLC method. Based on these findings, the proposed sensor could be further developed for the portable and rapid detection of natural active compounds in the food, agricultural, and pharmaceutical fields.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Liangliang Liu
- Correspondence: (L.L.); (A.X.); Tel.: +86-731-88998525 (L.L.); +86-731-88998536 (A.X.)
| | - Aiping Xiao
- Correspondence: (L.L.); (A.X.); Tel.: +86-731-88998525 (L.L.); +86-731-88998536 (A.X.)
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17
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Torrinha Á, Martins M, Tavares M, Delerue-Matos C, Morais S. Carbon paper as a promising sensing material: Characterization and electroanalysis of ketoprofen in wastewater and fish. Talanta 2021; 226:122111. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2021.122111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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18
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Majak D, Fan J, Kang S, Gupta M. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ 9-THC) sensing using an aerosol jet printed organic electrochemical transistor (OECT). J Mater Chem B 2021; 9:2107-2117. [PMID: 33596277 DOI: 10.1039/d0tb02951c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Recreational use of marijuana/cannabis was legalized in Canada in 2018 and has been decriminalized in several other countries; however, the detection of impairment has remained elusive for law enforcement. The psychoactive ingredient in cannabis, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), can be detected in saliva and be correlated well with the intake of cannabis. Organic electrochemical transistors (OECTs) have been used for a variety of biosensing applications like glucose, pH, ions, etc. In this work, we demonstrate the use of unfunctionalized OECTs for the detection of Δ9-THC down to 0.1 nM and 1 nM diluted in DI water and synthetic saliva buffer, respectively. These OECTs have been aerosol jet printed entirely with PEDOT:PSS as the channel material. Using a platinum gate coupled with an aerosol jet printed OECT, Δ9-THC concentration can be detected due to its oxidation reaction at the gate. These results were consistent with cyclic voltammetry measurements of Δ9-THC using Pt as the working and counter electrode. Utilizing these OECT based sensors, we have achieved high sensitivity of detection of Δ9-THC in the range from 0.1 nM to 5 μM. These OECT based Δ9-THC sensors demonstrate less than 3% error indicating good repeatability which is averaged over 15 measurements on multiple devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darren Majak
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada.
| | - Jiaxin Fan
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada.
| | - Seongdae Kang
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada
| | - Manisha Gupta
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 1H9, Canada.
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19
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Kotru S, Klimuntowski M, Ridha H, Uddin Z, Askhar AA, Singh G, Howlader MMR. Electrochemical sensing: A prognostic tool in the fight against COVID-19. Trends Analyt Chem 2021; 136:116198. [PMID: 33518850 PMCID: PMC7825925 DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2021.116198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic has devastated the world, despite all efforts in infection control and treatment/vaccine development. Hospitals are currently overcrowded, with health statuses of patients often being hard to gauge. Therefore, methods for determining infection severity need to be developed so that high-risk patients can be prioritized, resources can be efficiently distributed, and fatalities can be prevented. Electrochemical prognostic biosensing of various biomarkers may hold promise in solving these problems as they are low-cost and provide timely results. Therefore, we have reviewed the literature and extracted the most promising biomarkers along with their most favourable electrochemical sensors. The biomarkers discussed in this paper are C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukins (ILs), tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), interferons (IFNs), glutamate, breath pH, lymphocytes, platelets, neutrophils and D-dimer. Metabolic syndrome is also discussed as comorbidity for COVID-19 patients, as it increases infection severity and raises chances of becoming infected. Cannabinoids, especially cannabidiol (CBD), are discussed as a potential adjunct therapy for COVID-19 as their medicinal properties may be desirable in minimizing the neurodegenerative or severe inflammatory damage caused by severe COVID-19 infection. Currently, hospitals are struggling to provide adequate care; thus, point-of-care electrochemical sensor development needs to be prioritized to provide an approximate prognosis for hospital patients. During and following the immediate aftermath of the pandemic, electrochemical sensors can also be integrated into wearable and portable devices to help patients monitor recovery while returning to their daily lives. Beyond the COVID-19 pandemic, these sensors will also prove useful for monitoring inflammation-based diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharda Kotru
- Department of Integrated Biomedical Engineering and Health Sciences, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Martin Klimuntowski
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Hashim Ridha
- School of Interdisciplinary Science, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Zakir Uddin
- School of Rehabilitation Science, McMaster University, 1400 Main St W, Hamilton, ON, L8S 1C7, Canada
| | - Ali A Askhar
- Department of Medicine, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Gurmit Singh
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Matiar M R Howlader
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada
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20
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Vacek J, Vostalova J, Papouskova B, Skarupova D, Kos M, Kabelac M, Storch J. Antioxidant function of phytocannabinoids: Molecular basis of their stability and cytoprotective properties under UV-irradiation. Free Radic Biol Med 2021; 164:258-270. [PMID: 33453360 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2021.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
In this contribution, a comprehensive study of the redox transformation, electronic structure, stability and photoprotective properties of phytocannabinoids is presented. The non-psychotropic cannabidiol (CBD), cannabigerol (CBG), cannabinol (CBN), cannabichromene (CBC), and psychotropic tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) isomers and iso-THC were included in the study. The results show that under aqueous ambient conditions at pH 7.4, non-psychotropic cannabinoids are slight or moderate electron-donors and they are relatively stable, in the following order: CBD > CBG ≥ CBN > CBC. In contrast, psychotropic Δ9-THC degrades approximately one order of magnitude faster than CBD. The degradation (oxidation) is associated with the transformation of OH groups and changes in the double-bond system of the investigated molecules. The satisfactory stability of cannabinoids is associated with the fact that their OH groups are fully protonated at pH 7.4 (pKa is ≥ 9). The instability of CBN and CBC was accelerated after exposure to UVA radiation, with CBD (or CBG) being stable for up to 24 h. To support their topical applications, an in vitro dermatological comparative study of cytotoxic, phototoxic and UVA or UVB photoprotective effects using normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDF) and keratinocytes (HaCaT) was done. NHDF are approx. twice as sensitive to the cannabinoids' toxicity as HaCaT. Specifically, toxicity IC50 values for CBD after 24 h of incubation are 7.1 and 12.8 μM for NHDF and HaCaT, respectively. None of the studied cannabinoids were phototoxic. Extensive testing has shown that CBD is the most effective protectant against UVA radiation of the studied cannabinoids. For UVB radiation, CBN was the most effective. The results acquired could be used for further redox biology studies on phytocannabinoids and evaluations of their mechanism of action at the molecular level. Furthermore, the UVA and UVB photoprotectivity of phytocannabinoids could also be utilized in the development of new cannabinoid-based topical preparations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Vacek
- Department of Medical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University, Hnevotinska 3, 775 15, Olomouc, Czech Republic.
| | - Jitka Vostalova
- Department of Medical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University, Hnevotinska 3, 775 15, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Barbora Papouskova
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Palacky University, 17. Listopadu 12, 771 46, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Denisa Skarupova
- Department of Medical Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry, Palacky University, Hnevotinska 3, 775 15, Olomouc, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Kos
- Department of Advanced Materials and Organic Synthesis, Institute of Chemical Process Fundamentals of the Czech Academy of Sciences, v. v. i., Rozvojova 135, 165 02, Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Kabelac
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Branisovska 31, 370 05, Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
| | - Jan Storch
- Department of Advanced Materials and Organic Synthesis, Institute of Chemical Process Fundamentals of the Czech Academy of Sciences, v. v. i., Rozvojova 135, 165 02, Prague 6, Czech Republic.
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21
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Cirrincione M, Zanfrognini B, Pigani L, Protti M, Mercolini L, Zanardi C. Development of an electrochemical sensor based on carbon black for the detection of cannabidiol in vegetable extracts. Analyst 2021; 146:612-619. [DOI: 10.1039/d0an01932a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
A glassy carbon electrode chemically modified with a carbon black coating is proposed here for the rapid and portable determination of cannabidiol (CBD) in a commercial Cannabis seed oil and in fibre-type Cannabis sativa L. leaves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Cirrincione
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology
- Alma Mater Studiorum
- Università di Bologna
- 40126 Bologna
- Italy
| | - Barbara Zanfrognini
- Institute of Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity (ISOF)
- National Research Council of Italy (CNR)
- 40129 Bologna
- Italy
| | - Laura Pigani
- Department of Chemical and Geological Sciences
- Università di Modena e Reggio Emilia
- 41125 Modena
- Italy
| | - Michele Protti
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology
- Alma Mater Studiorum
- Università di Bologna
- 40126 Bologna
- Italy
| | - Laura Mercolini
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology
- Alma Mater Studiorum
- Università di Bologna
- 40126 Bologna
- Italy
| | - Chiara Zanardi
- Institute of Organic Synthesis and Photoreactivity (ISOF)
- National Research Council of Italy (CNR)
- 40129 Bologna
- Italy
- Department of Chemical and Geological Sciences
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22
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López-Iglesias D, García-Guzmán JJ, Zanardi C, Palacios-Santander JM, Cubillana-Aguilera L, Pigani L. Fast electroanalytical determination of Cannabidiol and Cannabinol in aqueous solution using Sonogel-Carbon-PEDOT devices. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2020.114591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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23
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Ahmed SR, Chand R, Kumar S, Mittal N, Srinivasan S, Rajabzadeh AR. Recent biosensing advances in the rapid detection of illicit drugs. Trends Analyt Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2020.116006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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24
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25
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Darzi ER, Garg NK. Electrochemical Oxidation of Δ 9-Tetrahydrocannabinol: A Simple Strategy for Marijuana Detection. Org Lett 2020; 22:3951-3955. [PMID: 32330051 PMCID: PMC8290221 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.0c01241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Recently, it has been estimated that nearly 200 million people use marijuana with growing usage being attributed to the legalization and decriminalization of the drug around the world. A concerning implication of increased marijuana use is the alarming number of individuals who report driving under the influence of the drug, which has prompted the development of detection technologies. An electrochemical-based detection technology, akin to how the alcohol breathalyzer functions, would provide an attractive solution to this growing societal problem. The first step toward this goal is to develop a reaction that converts Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), the primary psychoactive substance in marijuana, to a derivative with diagnostic spectroscopic changes. We report the development of a mild electrochemical method for the oxidation of Δ9-THC to its corresponding p-quinone isomer. The photophysical and electrochemical properties of the resultant quinone show a dramatic shift in comparison to Δ9-THC. This simple protocol provides the foundation for the development of an electrochemical-based marijuana breathalyzer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan R Darzi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, United States
| | - Neil K Garg
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1569, United States
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26
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Klimuntowski M, Alam MM, Singh G, Howlader MMR. Electrochemical Sensing of Cannabinoids in Biofluids: A Noninvasive Tool for Drug Detection. ACS Sens 2020; 5:620-636. [PMID: 32102542 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.9b02390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Cannabinoid sensing in biofluids provides great insight into the effects of medicinal cannabis on the body. The prevalence of cannabis for pain management and illicit drug use necessitates knowledge translation in cannabinoids. In this Review, we provide an overview of the current detection methods of cannabinoids in bodily fluids emphasizing electrochemical sensing. First, we introduce cannabinoids and discuss the structure and metabolism of Δ9-THC and its metabolites in relation to blood, urine, saliva, sweat, and breath. Next, we briefly discuss lab based techniques for cannabinoids in biofluids. While these techniques are highly sensitive and specific, roadside safety requires a quick, portable, and cost-effective sensing method. These needs motivated a comprehensive review of advantages, disadvantages, and future directions for electrochemical sensing of cannabinoids. The literature shows the lowest limit of detection to be 3.3 pg of Δ9-THC/mL using electrochemical immunosensors, while electrodes fabricated with low cost methods such as screen-printing and carbon paste can detect as little as 25 and 1.26 ng of Δ9-THC/mL, respectively. Future research will include nanomaterial modified working electrodes, for simultaneous sensing of multiple cannabinoids. Additionally, there should be an emphasis on selectivity for cannabinoids in the presence of interfering compounds. Sensors should be fully integrated on biocompatible substrates with control electronics and intelligent components for wearable diagnostics. We hope this Review will prove to be the seminal work in the electrochemical sensing of cannabinoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Klimuntowski
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Maksud M. Alam
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Gurmit Singh
- Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L8, Canada
| | - Matiar M. R. Howlader
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, McMaster University, 1280 Main Street West, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
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27
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Mishra RK, Sempionatto JR, Li Z, Brown C, Galdino NM, Shah R, Liu S, Hubble LJ, Bagot K, Tapert S, Wang J. Simultaneous detection of salivary Δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol and alcohol using a Wearable Electrochemical Ring Sensor. Talanta 2020; 211:120757. [PMID: 32070607 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2020.120757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2019] [Revised: 01/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/16/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Driving under the influence of cannabis and alcohol represents a major safety concern due to the synergistic or additive effect of these substances of abuse. Hence, rapid road-site testing of these substances is highly desired to reduce risks of fatal accidents. Here we describe a wearable electrochemical sensing device for the simultaneous direct, decentralized, detection of salivary THC and alcohol. The new ring-based sensing platform contains a voltammetric THC sensor and an amperometric alcohol biosensor on the ring cap, along with the wireless electronics embedded within the ring case. Rapid replacement of the disposable sensing-electrode ring cap following each saliva assay is accomplished by aligning spring-loaded pins, mounted on the electronic board (PCB), with the current collectors of the sensing electrodes. The printed dual-analyte sensor ring cover is based on a MWCNT/carbon electrode for the THC detection along with a Prussian-blue transducer, coated with alcohol oxidase/chitosan reagent layer, for the biosensing of alcohol. THC and alcohol can thus be detected simultaneously in the same diluted saliva sample within 3 min, with no cross talk and no interferences from the saliva matrix. The new wearable ring sensor platform should enable law enforcement personnel to screen drivers in a single traffic stop and offers considerable promise for addressing growing concerns of drug-impaired driving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rupesh K Mishra
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Rajasthan, Jaipur, 303002, India
| | - Juliane R Sempionatto
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Zhanhong Li
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Christopher Brown
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Nathalia M Galdino
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Rushabh Shah
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Shuyang Liu
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Lee J Hubble
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; CSIRO Manufacturing, Lindfield, New South Wales 2070, Australia
| | - Kara Bagot
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Addiction Institute of Mount Sinai, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Susan Tapert
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Joseph Wang
- Department of Nanoengineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
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