Investigation of anthropogenic gadolinium in tap water of polish cities: Gdańsk, Kraków, Warszawa, and Wrocław

Anthropogenic gadolinium contamination assessment in sewage, river, and tap water samples from the urban Osaka area, Japan

Gadolinium (Gd), a heavy metal and rare earth element (REE), exhibits strong toxicity in its Gd3+ state. To ensure safety from administration to excretion in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, Gd in chelate form is used as a contrast agent. However, highly stable Gd complexes released from hospital effluents are not effectively removed by wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), leading to the entry of Gd complexes into river and tap water, and affecting the aquatic environment. Furthermore, Gd complexes in river water are transferred to the sea, potentially impacting marine organisms. In this study, Gd concentrations in sewage, river, and tap water samples collected in Osaka City, Japan, were analyzed. Osaka has the second-largest number of MRI devices in Japan after Tokyo. The analysis results were used to investigate the environmental dynamics of Gd concentrations influenced by human activities and to examine correlations between MRI device numbers, population, and Gd concentrations. The results showed that most water samples had a Gd/Gd* (where Gd* is the background concentration) ratio above 1.4, with a positive correlation between Gd concentrations in treated sewage and the number of MRI devices. High concentrations of anthropogenic Gd (GdAnth) were detected in effluents from WWTPs, indicating that GdAnth in river and tap water was primarily due to GdAnth discharged from WWTPs. Gd concentrations in river water decreased from upstream to downstream sampling locations with an increase in Gd/Gd*. However, all the tap water samples with low Gd concentrations exhibited a Gd/Gd* > 1.4, which suggested that GdAnth affected both river and tap water.

Effects of environmental concentrations of gadolinium on adults and juveniles of the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris

Rare earth elements (REEs), including gadolinium (Gd), are increasingly released into the environment because of their widespread use in medical imaging, electronics, and renewable energy technologies. Despite growing concerns over their accumulation in soil ecosystems, the effects of Gd on terrestrial organisms are poorly understood. To address this gap, we evaluated the toxic effects of Gd on the soil organism Lumbricus terrestris at both the adult and juvenile stages. Adult earthworms were exposed for 28 days to 1 mg/kg or 10 mg/kg Gd to assess both acute and sublethal effects, including cellular and oxidative stress, neurotoxicity, growth and reproductive performance. The offspring were exposed to 1 mg/kg of Gd for 28 days, followed by an additional 28 days of exposure to 5 mg/kg, and the same sublethal parameters were assessed. The results revealed a low accumulation of Gd in adults and a lack of acute and sublethal effects in Gd-treated worms, except for an increase in lysosomal membrane destabilization. Juveniles were more susceptible, showing increased growth and glycogen content. Upon exposure to Gd, catalase activity was inhibited, whereas acetylcholinesterase activity increased. The effects on glycogen and catalase were exacerbated in juveniles exposed to relatively high Gd concentrations. Overall, the results indicate that L. terrestris is susceptible to Gd exposure, highlighting the need for further research on its long-term effects.

Tracing emerging contaminants from the Baltic Sea and North Sea in fjord waters in southern Norway with rare earth elements as far-field tracers

Knowledge of geogenic and anthropogenic rare earth elements and yttrium (REY) in fjords in Norway and elsewhere is still limited despite the importance of fjords for biodiversity and economy and the known ecotoxicity of the REY. We provide complete sets of REY data for fjord waters and a river in southern Norway and for several stations along the coasts of Denmark and Sweden, which characterise Baltic Sea outflow water. Shallow fjord waters show high REY concentrations and shale-normalised (SN) patterns that resemble those of the river water input. Deeper waters show lower concentrations, seawater-like REYSN patterns, and the PrSN/TbSN ratios (≥0.5) typical of fjord waters. Some of the samples show elevated Gd/Tb ratios and distinct positive Gd anomalies, revealing the presence of anthropogenic Gd originating from constrast agents used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). We emphasise that all water samples from the Baltic Sea outflow taken over a twelve months period show large positive Gd anomalies, suggesting a permanent flux of anthropogenic Gd from the Baltic Sea into the Skagerrak. Combined with literature data, our results suggest that the anthropogenic Gd in the fjords of southern Norway is not derived from local sources. It rather originates from the Baltic Sea and southern North Sea and is transported northward by currents along the coasts of Sweden, Denmark and Germany. If application of Gd-based contrast agents in MRI continues to increase, this signal will get stronger in the future and be transported even further north. Overall, our data for geogenic REY and anthropogenic Gd in fjord and bay waters from southern Norway and in the Baltic Sea outflow show that local hydrography exerts an important control on the concentration and distribution of trace elements which may be (micro)nutrients and/or (micro)pollutants in fjords. This needs to be considered in environmental impact studies.

Tracking the distribution of persistent and mobile wastewater-derived substances in the southern and central North Sea using anthropogenic gadolinium from MRI contrast agents as a far-field tracer

The use of the rare earth element gadolinium (Gd) in contrast agents for magnetic resonance imaging has led to a significant (micro-)contamination of riverine and coastal environments in many parts of the world. This study comprises a detailed investigation on the rare earth elements and yttrium inventory of the North Sea and also reports data for the major tributaries Thames, Rhine, Ems, Weser and Elbe. We show that large parts of the southern North Sea, including the Wadden Sea UNESCO Natural World Heritage site, are (micro)contaminated with Gd from Gd-based contrast agents (GBCA). Their dispersion reveals their estuarine input and allows to effectively track water masses and currents. The chemical persistence and conservative behavior of GBCA, coupled with the low detection limits of state-of-the-art analytical methods, makes the anthropogenic Gd a sensitive screening proxy for monitoring similarly stable, but potentially hazardous, persistent chemical/pharmaceutical substances in natural waters.

Accumulation of rare earth elements in human gallstones: a perspective from dietary and human health

BACKGROUND

Gallstone disease poses a global threat to human health and is strongly linked to environmental factors. However, there is currently no data on the presence of rare earth elements (REEs) in human gallstones. This paper investigates the concentration and distribution of REEs in gallstones for the first time, aiming to explore the environmental implications on human health.

METHODS

A total of 25 gallstone samples were collected in Shanghai and the content of REEs was measured by Inductively coupled plasma-Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) to explore the distribution of REEs in gallstones.

RESULTS

The concentration of REEs in gallstones ranged from 4.89 to 190.8 ng/g (mean 39.21). In most of the gallstone analyses, REEs have been detected and generally attributed to environmental exposure or food contamination. The Y/Ho ratio of gallstones was lower than that of continental rocks, similar to that in the blood, indicating limited fractionation during fluid transport processes in the gallbladder.

CONCLUSIONS

The upper continental crust (UCC)-normalized REEs pattern in gallstones showed depletion of light REEs, while most showed enrichment of heavy REEs. Positive Gd anomalies were found in most samples, while few samples suggested anthropogenic influence. Whether exogenous inputs or in vivo biofractionation lead to changes in REEs fractionated patterns require further analyses.

Impacts of COVID-19 and climate change on wastewater-derived substances in urban drinking water: Evidence from gadolinium-based contrast agents in tap water from Berlin, Germany

Anthropogenic gadolinium from MRI contrast agents has been detected in surface waters worldwide. It is released with the treated effluents of wastewater treatment plants, similar to other wastewater-derived substances (WWDS) such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products. We determined concentrations of the rare earth elements in tap water from Berlin, Germany, using an automated preconcentration procedure that is both time- and cost-efficient. Anthropogenic gadolinium concentrations in Berlin's tap water increased on average 30-fold between 2009 and 2021. However, the tap water composition responded quickly to the reduced number of MRI scans during the COVID-19 pandemic, and some districts show a decrease from 2016 to 2021. Since climate change causes groundwater levels to decline in many regions, this needs to be mitigated by artificial groundwater recharge with surface water. This will inevitably lead to an increase in WWDS in potable water, which can be cost-efficiently monitored using anthropogenic gadolinium as tracer.

Contrast Media-driven Anthropogenic Gadolinium: Knowns and Unknowns

Gadolinium-based contrast agents (GBCAs) have augmented the capabilities of MRI, which has led to their widespread and increasing use in radiology practice. GBCAs are introduced into the environment through disposal of unused product and elimination after intravenous injection, both primarily via liquid dispersion into the environment. This human introduction of gadolinium into the environment, referred to as anthropogenic gadolinium, is associated with the detection of gadolinium in water systems, raising concerns for potential adverse impact and prompting certain mitigation actions. This article summarizes the existing knowledge and problem scope, conveys the relevant underlying chemical principles of chelate dissociation, and offers an inferred perspective that the magnitude of the problem is most unlikely to cause human harm. The merits and limitations regarding possible mitigation tactics, such as collecting urine after GBCA administration, use of lower-dose high-relaxivity macrocyclic GBCAs, and the option for virtual contrast-enhanced examinations, will be discussed. Finally, the potential for monitoring gadolinium uptake in bone will be presented, and recommendations for future research will be offered. © RSNA, 2024 See also the article by Ibrahim et al in this issue. See also the article by McKee et al in this issue.

Review of strategies to reduce the contamination of the water environment by gadolinium-based contrast agents

Gadolinium-based contrast agents (GBCA) are essential for diagnostic MRI examinations. GBCA are only used in small quantities on a per-patient basis; however, the acquisition of contrast-enhanced MRI examinations worldwide results in the use of many thousands of litres of GBCA per year. Data shows that these GBCA are present in sewage water, surface water, and drinking water in many regions of the world. Therefore, there is growing concern regarding the environmental impact of GBCA because of their ubiquitous presence in the aquatic environment. To address the problem of GBCA in the water system as a whole, collaboration is necessary between all stakeholders, including the producers of GBCA, medical professionals and importantly, the consumers of drinking water, i.e. the patients. This paper aims to make healthcare professionals aware of the opportunity to take the lead in making informed decisions about the use of GBCA and provides an overview of the different options for action.In this paper, we first provide a summary on the metabolism and clinical use of GBCA, then the environmental fate and observations of GBCA, followed by measures to reduce the use of GBCA. The environmental impact of GBCA can be reduced by (1) measures focusing on the application of GBCA by means of weight-based contrast volume reduction, GBCA with higher relaxivity per mmol of Gd, contrast-enhancing sequences, and post-processing; and (2) measures that reduce the waste of GBCA, including the use of bulk packaging and collecting residues of GBCA at the point of application.Critical relevance statement This review aims to make healthcare professionals aware of the environmental impact of GBCA and the opportunity for them to take the lead in making informed decisions about GBCA use and the different options to reduce its environmental burden.Key points• Gadolinium-based contrast agents are found in sources of drinking water and constitute an environmental risk.• Radiologists have a wide spectrum of options to reduce GBCA use without compromising diagnostic quality.• Radiology can become more sustainable by adopting such measures in clinical practice.