Effect of the treatment with Achyrocline satureioides (free and nanocapsules essential oil) and diminazene aceturate on hematological and biochemical parameters in rats infected by Trypanosoma evansi

Nanotechnology Promoting the Development of Products from the Biodiversity of the Asteraceae Family

Biodiversity is a hallmark of the Asteraceae family. Several species are known for their pharmacological potential. The search for new substances has permeated the chemistry of natural products for years. However, the development of a final product is still a challenge. Plant extracts have physicochemical characteristics that sometimes hinder administration, requiring a formulation. In this context, nanotechnology emerges as a tool to improve the pharmacokinetic parameters of several pharmacologically active substances. Nanoemulsions, liposomes, and nanoparticles are used to carry the active ingredients and thus improve therapeutic action, especially for substances with solubility and absorption problems. This paper aimed at compiling all the studies that used nanotechnology to develop formulations from species of the Asteraceae family from 2010 to 2021 in a literature review. The search showed that nanoemulsions are the most developed formulation associated with essential oils. The use of nanotechnology promoted an improvement in the pharmacokinetic parameters of active substances.

Partially Purified Leaf Fractions of Azadirachta indica Inhibit Trypanosome Alternative Oxidase and Exert Antitrypanosomal Effects on Trypanosoma congolense

Introduction

Trypanosomiasis is a neglected disease of humans and livestock caused by single-celled flagellated haemo-protozoan parasites belonging to the genus Trypanosoma.

Purpose

Widespread resistance to trypanocidal drugs creates urgent need for new, more effective drugs with potential to inhibit important trypanosome molecular targets.

Methods

Nine column chromatographic, partially purified leaf fractions of Azadirachta indica (AIF) were subjected to trypanosome alternative oxidase (TAO) inhibition assay using ubiquinol oxidase assay. The potent TAO inhibitors were evaluated for trypanocidal activities against T. congolense in rat model using in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo assays. Complete cessation or reduction in parasite motility was scored from 0 (no parasite) to 6 (greater than or equal to 6 × 10⁷ trypanosomes/milliliter of blood), and was used to evaluate the efficacy of in vitro treatments.

Results

Only AIF1, AIF2, and AIF5 significantly inhibited TAO. AIF1 and AIF5 produced significant, dose-dependent suppression of parasite motility reaching score zero within 1 h with EC₅₀ of 0.005 and 0.004 µg/µL, respectively, while trypanosome-laden blood was still at score six with an EC₅₀ of 44,086 µg/µL. Mice inoculated with the concentrations at scores 0 and 1 (1–2 moribund parasites) at the end of the experiment did not develop parasitaemia. The two fractions significantly (p < 0.05) lowered parasite burden, with the AIF5 exhibiting highest in vivo trypanocidal effects. Packed cell volume was significantly higher in AIF1 (p < 0.05) and AIF5 (p < 0.001) groups compared to DMSO-treated group. Only AIF5 significantly (p < 0.05) lowered malondialdehyde.

Conclusion

AIF1 and AIF5 offer prospects for the discovery of TAO inhibitor(s).

Protection of bovine mammary epithelial cells by a nanoemulsion of the medicinal herb Achyrocline satureioides (Lam.) DC and its capacity of permeation through mammary epithelium

The low levels of toxicity and cytoprotective effect attributed to Achyrocline satureioides (Lam.) DC, a medicinal plant native to South America, are of interest for bovine mastitis therapy. This research paper reports the hypothesis that a nanoemulsion of macela extract (Achyrocline satureioides) exerts protective effects on bovine mammary alveolar cells -T (MAC-T) and increases the permeation of flavonoid compounds through mammary epithelium. Extract-loaded nanoemulsions (2.5 mg/ml) (NE-ML) (n = 4) were prepared using high-pressure homogenization with varying concentrations of flaxseed oil and Tween 80. Permeation and retention of free and nanoencapsulated quercetin, 3-O-methylquercetin and luteolin were performed on mammary glandular epithelium using Franz diffusion cells. The cell viability was evaluated on mammary epithelial cells (MAC-T lineage) using the MTT method (3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) after exposure to loaded and blank nanoemulsions (NE-ML and NE-BL). Necrotic or apoptotic cell death was evaluated by flow cytometry after exposure to nanoemulsions (NE-ML and NE-BL). Subsequently, the cell death was assessed by previously treating MAC-T cells with NE-ML for 23 h, followed by exposure to H2O2 (2 mM) for 1 h. Higher permeation of quercetin and 3-O-methylquercetin in NE-ML was found compared to that of free extract with a final permeated amount of 50.7 ± 3.2 and 111.2 ± 0.6 μg/cm2 compared to 35.0 ± 0.6 and 48.9 ± 1.2, respectively. For NE-BL, the IC50 was at least 1.3% (v/v), while for the NE-ML, it was at least 2.6% (v/v). After exposure to NE-ML (5 and 1.2%, v/v), the percentage of apoptotic cells was reduced (±30%). For the H2O2 assay, the percentage of cells in necrosis was reduced by 40% after exposure to NE-ML1% (v/v) + H2O2 2 mM. The protective effects and increased permeation of macela nanoemulsion make this a promising new candidate for bovine mastitis therapy.

Review on trypanosomiasis and their prevalence in some country on the Red Sea

Trypanosomiasis is a protozoan infection affecting both human and animals in almost all parts of the world. It can affect a very large range of domestic and wild hosts including camelids, equines, cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs and other carnivores, deer, gazelles and elephants. This review paper was designed to address the effect of this economically important disease in countries on the Red Sea, especially in Egypt, Sudan, Somalia, and Saudi Arabia during the period 2010 to 2020. The prevalence of trypanosomiasis is different between these countries due to different types of diagnostic methods (Giemsa-stained blood smears, Hematocrit centrifugation, Serological test, and molecular analysis PCR) used and differential distribution of vector (Tse tse) flies. In current review, retrospective studies of published literature on distribution and prevalence of Trypanosoma evansi infection in the Red Sea Countries was conducted [Google Scholar and PubMed were used to retrieve the published literature from 2000-2020. A total of 77 published articles met the eligibility criteria and were reviewed. A total of 16 reports have been reported on the prevalence and distribution of Trypnosoma evansi infection in the Red Sea Countries have been from 2010-2020]. According to the published literature, we can say that trypanosomiasis in camels are more prevalent in Sudan than in other countries, followed by 17% and 51.78% in both clinical and non-clinical cases. Hence, the reliable diagnostic tests should be used for rapid treatment or control of the disease as if not treated appropriately in early-stage, can lead to death of the camels.

Murine liver response to Allium sativum treatment during infection induced-trypanosomiasis

Hepatic injury induced by trypanosomiasis is one of the major health problems not only to human but also to wild and domestic animals. This study aimed to evaluate the hepatoprotective role of Allium sativum extract (ASE) against Trypanosoma evansi infection in mice. Animals were divided into 4 groups. Group I received only saline while group II received ASE (20 mg/Kg). Animals of group III and group IV were infected with T. evansi. The latter group was treated with ASE. The infrared spectroscopic analysis of A. sativum extract exhibited bands between 3700 cm^-1 and 599 cm^-1. On day 4 post T. evansi infection, ASE decreased the parasitemia by about 15 fold. Also, ASE regulated the number of erythrocytes and leucocytes and the hemoglobin content. In addition, the histopathological damage was reduced after treatment with ASE. Moreover, the oxidant and the antioxidant markers (glutathione, malondialdehyde and catalase) were regulated in the infected-treated animals. Collectively, the results proved the protective role of ASE against T. evansi infection in mice.

Trypanocidal Essential Oils: A Review

Trypanosomiases are diseases caused by parasitic protozoan trypanosomes of the genus Trypanosoma. In humans, this includes Chagas disease and African trypanosomiasis. There are few therapeutic options, and there is low efficacy to clinical treatment. Therefore, the search for new drugs for the trypanosomiasis is urgent. This review describes studies of the trypanocidal properties of essential oils, an important group of natural products widely found in several tropical countries. Seventy-seven plants were selected from literature for the trypanocidal activity of their essential oils. The main chemical constituents and mechanisms of action are also discussed. In vitro and in vivo experimental data show the therapeutic potential of these natural products for the treatment of infections caused by species of Trypanosoma.

Nanospheres as a technological alternative to suppress hepatic cellular damage and impaired bioenergetics caused by nerolidol in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

Nerolidol is a sesquiterpene found in essential oils of several plant species. It is found commonly in human and animal diets and is approved by the US Food and Drug Administration as a flavoring agent. Nevertheless, recent studies have suggested that nerolidol has potent hepatotoxic effects. Because use of plant-based products in human and animal food has expanded considerably, it is essential to develop approaches such as nanotechnology to avoid or reduce hepatic toxic effects. Therefore, the aim of the study was to determine whether nerolidol dietary supplementation elicited hepatic damage associated with impairment of energy homeostasis, as well as whether supplementation with nerolidol-loaded in nanospheres prevented hepatotoxic effects in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Nile tilapia were divided into five groups (A-E, n = 10 per group) with four replicates each, as follows: group A received basal feed (without supplementation); group B received feed containing 0.5 mL free nerolidol/kg; group C received feed containing 1.0 mL free nerolidol/kg; group D received feed containing 0.5 mL nanospheres nerolidol/kg; and group E received feed containing 1.0 mL nanospheres nerolidol/kg. All groups received experimental feed once a day (10% total biomass) at 2 p.m. for 60 consecutive days. Hepatic liver weight and relative liver weight were significantly lower in fish fed 1.0 mL free nerolidol/kg feed than in fish given basal diet (control group). Hepatic pyruvate kinase (1.0 mL free nerolidol/kg) and adenylate kinase (0.5 and 1.0 mL free nerolidol/kg) activities were significantly lower than in the control group, while hepatic reactive oxygen species and lipid damage levels were significantly higher. Finally, the comet assay revealed significant increases in the frequency of damage and the damage index in fish given 0.5 and 1.0 mL free nerolidol/kg in a dose-dependent manner. Nerolidol-loaded in nanospheres prevented all alterations elicited by free nerolidol. Based on these data, we concluded that dietary supplementation with free nerolidol elicited severe impairment of hepatic bioenergetics homeostasis that appeared to be mediated by excessive ROS production and lipid damage, contributing to a genotoxic effect. Dietary supplementation with nerolidol-loaded in nanospheres did not elicit hepatic damage, and therefore, should be considered as a replacement so as to limit toxicity, permitting its continued use as a dietary supplement.

Indigofera oblongifolia as a fight against hepatic injury caused by murine trypanosomiasis

Trypanosoma evansi is a hazardous pathogenic parasite infecting a broad variety of livestock and affects wildlife worldwide. Trypanosoma evansi has gained resistance to most drugs used; therefore, it requires alternative medicines. The objective of this research was to investigate the impact of Indigofera oblongifolia leaf extract (IE) on T. evansi-induced hepatic injury.

Mice were once infected with 1000 T. evansi. The treated group was gavaged with 100 mg/Kg IE after infection. Histological and biochemical changes in mice hepatic tissue were studied. Also, the oxidative damage in the liver was evaluated through determining the level of glutathione (GSH), Malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO) and catalase (CAT) markers. IE was able to suppress the induced parasitemia due to infection. Also, IE improved the histological liver architecture. Furthermore, the liver enzymes, alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity were improved after IE mice were treated. IE protects against hepatic damage caused by trypanosomiasis in mice. Further studies are needed to isolate the active compounds in IE and to monitor these compunds’ ameliorative function.

Untargeted LC-MS metabolomic studies of Asteraceae species to discover inhibitors of Leishmania major dihydroorotate dehydrogenase

INTRODUCTION

Interesting data about the family Asteraceae as a new source of Leishmania major dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (LmDHODH) inhibitors are presented. This key macromolecular target for parasites causing neglected diseases catalyzes the fourth reaction of the de novo pyrimidine biosynthetic pathway, which takes part in major cell functions, including DNA and RNA biosynthesis.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to (1) determine LmDHODH inhibitor candidates, revealing the type of chemistry underlying such bioactivity, and (2) predict the inhibitory potential of extracts from new untested plant species, classifying them as active or inactive based on their LC-MS based metabolic fingerprints.

METHODS

Extracts from 150 species were screened for the inhibition of LmDHODH, and untargeted UHPLC-(ESI)-HRMS metabolomic studies were carried out in combination with in silico approaches.

RESULTS

The IC₅₀ values determined for a subset of 59 species ranged from 148 µg mL^-1 to 9.4 mg mL^-1. Dereplication of the metabolic fingerprints allowed the identification of 48 metabolites. A reliable OPLS-DA model (R² > 0.9, Q² > 0.7, RMSE_CV < 0.3) indicated the inhibitor candidates; nine of these metabolites were identified using data from isolated chemical standards, one of which-4,5-di-O-E-caffeoylquinic acid (IC₅₀ 73 µM)-was capable of inhibiting LmDHODH. The predictive OPLS model was also effective, with 60% correct predictions for the test set.

CONCLUSION

Our approach was validated for (1) the discovery of LmDHODH inhibitors or interesting starting points for the optimization of new leishmanicides from Asteraceae species and (2) the prediction of extracts from untested species, classifying them as active or inactive.

Nanoparticulate drug delivery systems for the treatment of neglected tropical protozoan diseases

Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTDs) comprise of a group of seventeen infectious conditions endemic in many developing countries. Among these diseases are three of protozoan origin, namely leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, and African trypanosomiasis, caused by the parasites Leishmania spp., Trypanosoma cruzi, and Trypanosoma brucei respectively. These diseases have their own unique challenges which are associated with the development of effective prevention and treatment methods. Collectively, these parasitic diseases cause more deaths worldwide than all other NTDs combined. Moreover, many current therapies for these diseases are limited in their efficacy, possessing harmful or potentially fatal side effects at therapeutic doses. It is therefore imperative that new treatment strategies for these parasitic diseases are developed. Nanoparticulate drug delivery systems have emerged as a promising area of research in the therapy and prevention of NTDs. These delivery systems provide novel mechanisms for targeted drug delivery within the host, maximizing therapeutic effects while minimizing systemic side effects. Currently approved drugs may also be repackaged using these delivery systems, allowing for their potential use in NTDs of protozoan origin. Current research on these novel delivery systems has provided insight into possible indications, with evidence demonstrating their improved ability to specifically target pathogens, penetrate barriers within the host, and reduce toxicity with lower dose regimens. In this review, we will examine current research on these delivery systems, focusing on applications in the treatment of leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, and African trypanosomiasis. Nanoparticulate systems present a unique therapeutic alternative through the repositioning of existing medications and directed drug delivery.

An overlooked horticultural crop, Smyrnium olusatrum, as a potential source of compounds effective against African trypanosomiasis

Among natural products, sesquiterpenes have shown promising inhibitory effects against bloodstream forms of Trypanosoma brucei, the protozoan parasite causing human African trypanosomiasis (HAT). Smyrnium olusatrum (Apiaceae), also known as Alexanders or wild celery, is a neglected horticultural crop characterized by oxygenated sesquiterpenes containing a furan ring. In the present work we explored the potential of its essential oils obtained from different organs and the main oxygenated sesquiterpenes, namely isofuranodiene, germacrone and β-acetoxyfuranoeudesm-4(15)-ene, as inhibitors of Trypanosoma brucei. All essential oils effectively inhibited the growth of parasite showing IC₅₀ values of 1.9-4.0μg/ml. Among the main essential oil constituents, isofuranodiene exhibited a significant and selective inhibitory activity against T. brucei (IC₅₀ of 0.6μg/ml, SI=30), with β-acetoxyfuranoeudesm-4(15)-ene giving a moderate potentiating effect. These results shed light on the possible application of isofuranodiene as an antiprotozoal agent to be included in combination treatments aimed not only at curing patients but also at preventing the diffusion of HAT.

Trypanocidal action of Lippia alba and Lippia origanoides essential oils against Trypanosoma evansi in vitro and in vivo used mice as experimental model

Parasitic diseases have an enormous health and economic impact and are a particular problem in tropical regions of the world. Disease caused by protozoa, such as trypanosomiasis, are the cause of most parasite related morbidity and mortality. Thus, the aim of this study was to verify the trypanocidal effectiveness of Lippia alba and Lippia origanoides against Trypanosoma evansi in vitro and in vivo. L. alba and L. origanoides were used in vitro on trypomastigotes at different concentrations (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 %) and exposure times (0, 1, 3, 6 and 9 h). The three concentrations tested showed trypanocidal activity in vitro, completely eliminating the parasites in small concentration after 6 h of assay. In vivo tests were performed using mice as the experimental model. T. evansi infected mice were treated with L. alba and L. origanoides with dose of 1.5 mL kg^-1 during 5 days. These protocols did not provide curative efficacy, however the mice treated with L. origanoides showed a significant increase in the longevity when compared to control group. Active compounds present in essential oils, such as L. origanoides, may potentiate the treatment of trypanosomosis when associated with other trypanocidal drugs.

Achillea fragrantissima, rich in flavonoids and tannins, potentiates the activity of diminazine aceturate against Trypanosoma evansi in rats

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate activity of methanol extract of Achillea fragrantissima (meth) (A. fragrantissima) alone or in combination with diminazine aceturate (DA) against Trypanosoma evansi (T. evansi) in experimentally infected rats.

METHODS

Sixty adult male Wister albino rats were divided equally into 6 groups (A-F). Rats in groups A-E were experimentally infected with T. evansi and those in group F were uninfected. The groups were treated respectively as follows: group A-with 3.5 mg/kg DA; group B- with 1000 mg/kg meth A. fragrantissima; group C-3.5 mg/kg DA plus 500 mg/kg meth A. fragrantissima; group D-3.5 mg/kg DA plus 1000 mg/kg meth A. fragrantissima. Group E was left untreated. Parasitemia, survivability, packed cell volume, hemoglobin concentration, total leucocytes count, lymphocyte count, and serum malondialdehyde and reduced glutathione (GSH) levels were estimated. Phytochemical screening of meth A. fragrantissima was also performed.

RESULTS

The phytochemical analysis of the meth A. fragrantissima indicated a higher content from polyphenolic tannins and non tannins and flavonoids. The efficacy percentage against trypanosomiasis in groups A - E was respectively as follows 80, 40, 90, 100, 0. The administration of meth-A. fragrantissima (1000 mg/kg b.wt.) produced a moderate efficacy against trypanosomiasis. Untreated rats in group E died between 25 and 30 d post infection. The rats given DA and meth A. fragrantissima combinations (C and D) showed faster and higher recovery rates than the uninfected control and groups A and B. The initial reduction in packed cell volume, hemoglobin, total leucocytes count, increases in serum malondialdehyde and decreases in GSH levels were reversed by the treatments.

CONCLUSION

The administration of the methanol extracts of A. fragrantissima and DA combination therapy was more effective than each product alone in the treatment of rats infected with T. evansi and further studies are required to isolate more active ingredients.