Comparison of postoperative pain control methods after bony surgery in the foot and ankle

A Comparative Analysis of Pain Control Methods after Ankle Fracture Surgery with a Peripheral Nerve Block: A Single-Center Randomized Controlled Prospective Study

Background and Objectives: Patients experience severe pain after surgical correction of ankle fractures. Although their exact mechanism is unknown, dexamethasone and epinephrine increase the analgesic effect of anesthetics in peripheral nerve blocks. This study aimed to compare the postoperative pain control efficacy of peripheral nerve blocks with ropivacaine combined with dexamethasone/epinephrine and peripheral nerve blocks with only ropivacaine and added patient-controlled analgesia in patients with ankle fractures. Materials and Methods: This randomized, controlled prospective study included patients aged 18-70 years surgically treated for ankle fractures between December 2021 and September 2022. The patients were divided into group A (n = 30), wherein pain was controlled using patient-controlled analgesia after lower extremity peripheral nerve block, and group B (n = 30), wherein dexamethasone/epinephrine was combined with the anesthetic solution during peripheral nerve block. In both groups, ropivacaine was used as the anesthetic solution for peripheral nerve block, and this peripheral nerve block was performed just before ankle surgery for the purpose of anesthesia for surgery. Pain (visual analog scale), patient satisfaction, and side effects were assessed and compared between the two groups. Results: The patients' demographic data were similar between groups. Pain scores were significantly lower in group B than in group A postoperatively. Satisfaction scores were significantly higher in group B (p = 0.003). There were no anesthesia-related complications in either group. Conclusions: Dexamethasone and epinephrine as adjuvant anesthetic solutions can effectively control pain when performing surgery using peripheral nerve blocks for patients with ankle fractures.

The Impact of Peripheral Nerve Block on the Quality of Care After Ankle Fracture Surgery: A Quality Improvement Study

OBJECTIVES

To increase peripheral nerve block (PNB) administration for ankle fracture surgeries (AFSs) at our institution to above 50% by January 1st, 2021.

DESIGN

Longitudinal, single-center quality improvement study conducted at a high-volume tertiary care center.

PATIENTS

All patients undergoing isolated AFS for unimalleolar, bimalleolar, or trimalleolar ankle fracture from July 2017 to April 2021 were included in this study.

INTERVENTION

Interventions implemented to minimize barriers for PNB administration included recruitment and training of expert anesthesiologists in regional anesthesia, procurement of ultrasound machines, implementation of a dedicated block room, and creation of a pamphlet for patients describing multimodal analgesia.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENT

The primary outcome was the percentage of patients receiving PNB for AFS. Secondary outcomes included hospital length-of-stay, postanesthesia care unit (PACU) and 24-hour postoperative opioid consumption (mean oral morphine equivalent [OME]), proportion of patients not requiring opioid analgesic in PACU, and PACU and 24-hour postoperative nausea/vomiting requiring antiemetic.

RESULTS

The PNB and non-PNB groups included 78 and 157 patients, respectively. PNB administration increased from <5% to 53% after implementation of the improvement bundle. Mean PACU and 24-hour opioid analgesic consumption was lower in the PNB group (PACU OME 38.96 mg vs. 55.42 mg, P = 0.001; 24-hour OME 50.83 mg vs. 65.69 mg, P = 0.008). A greater proportion of patients in the PNB group did not require PACU opioids (62.8% vs. 27.4%, P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

By performing a root cause analysis and implementing a multidisciplinary, patient-centered improvement bundle, we increased PNB administration for AFSs, resulting in reduced postoperative opioid analgesia consumption.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic Level III. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Techniques and complications of popliteal nerve blocks

BACKGROUND

Use of popliteal nerve blocks (PNBs) as an alternative or adjunctive therapy to traditional methods of pain control (e.g., systemic or spinal anesthesia and opioids) is increasingly popular in foot and ankle surgery.

METHODS

We reviewed online databases for literature on PNBs in foot and ankle surgery to analyze the various techniques and positioning used, the influence of drugs on their efficacy, and possible complications associated with their use. Thirty articles were identified with a predefined search criteria, followed by a review process for relevance.

RESULTS

Patient demographics, procedure specifics, and block techniques, such as anesthetic used, can impact the duration and success of a PNB. Administration with ultrasound guidance proved superior to nerve stimulation, and preoperative administration was superior to postoperative administration.

CONCLUSIONS

PNBs are an effective method to control postoperative pain with minimal complications, leading to decreased analgesic use, earlier discharge, and higher patient satisfaction.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III, retrospective comparative study.

Acute postoperative pain management protocols in podiatric surgery within Australia: a Delphi study

Background

There is limited evidence in the literature to describe an analgesic protocol that takes into consideration the extent of foot and ankle surgery. The aim of this study was to develop a guide for acute postoperative pain management for podiatric surgery in Australia, and to identify opportunities to improve the current list of scheduled medicines available to podiatric surgeons.

Methods

A Delphi method involving 3 survey rounds was employed for this study. Twelve expert panellists in the field of podiatric surgery and anaesthesiology were invited to participate, and 10 panellists remained by the end of the study. Round 1 involved 15 open-ended questions. These answers formed the basis of the 55 statements that were developed for the following 2 survey rounds, where panellists rated the appropriateness of each statement on a 9-point Likert scale. The third survey round was an opportunity for panellists to revise their answers to each statement in light of the majority response.

Results

For mild acute postoperative pain, non-opioid oral analgesics were recommended as an appropriate management option. For moderate and severe acute postoperative pain, both non-opioid and opioid products were found to be appropriate by the majority. It was agreed that oral opioids be reserved for breakthrough pain at all severity levels. All other statements in the Delphi study pertaining to drug hypersensitivities or allergies, stratification of pain management, opioid prescription concerns, and access to pain medications were accepted as appropriate by the majority of panellists.

Conclusion

The agreed approach to acute postoperative pain management for podiatric surgeons in Australia was with a stepwise approach, utilising multimodal therapy, and reserving oral opioids for breakthrough pain. Additionally, there was consensus for podiatric surgeons in Australia to have wider access to alternative analgesics and anti-emetics that have similar or improved efficacies with better safety profiles.

Are Hindfoot Procedures More Painful than Forefoot Procedures? A Prospective Observational Study in Elective Foot and Ankle Surgery

Pain after lower limb orthopedic surgery can be severe. Poorly controlled pain is associated with adverse outcomes. Peripheral nerve blocks (PNB) have become popular in foot and ankle surgery for their effective pain control and low complication rates. It has always been assumed that hindfoot procedures are more painful than midfoot/forefoot procedures often requiring inpatient stay for pain relief. There are no published studies evaluating this assumption. To investigate whether hindfoot procedures are more painful than forefoot/midfoot procedures by measuring pain scores, assessing effectiveness of PNBs and patient satisfaction. One hundred forty patients undergoing elective foot and ankle surgery were prospectively studied. Inclusion criteria: Adults undergoing elective foot and ankle surgery. Exclusion criteria: Patients 16 years or under, those with alternate sources of pain, peripheral neuropathy, known substance abuse, psychiatric illness and incomplete pain scores. Pain was measured via the Visual Analog Scale at 3 time intervals: immediately, 6 hours and at 24 hours postoperatively. Analysis was via t-test. A p value of <.05 demonstrated a statistical significance. Forefoot/midfoot versus hindfoot surgery pain scores showed that there was no significant difference at any postoperative interval. PNB versus no PNB pain scores showed there was no significant difference, except at 24 hours postoperatively (p value .024). Patients who had a PNB experienced rebound pain at 24 hours. Hindfoot surgery is not more painful than forefoot/midfoot surgery. Patients who had a PNB experienced rebound pain at 24 hours postoperatively, a finding that requires further research.

Clinical analyses of ultrasound-guided nerve block in lower-extremity surgery: A retrospective study

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study is to examine the clinical effects and results of lower-extremity surgery under ultrasound-guided nerve block; time required for nerve block, anesthesia onset time, duration of anesthesia, duration of analgesia, tolerable tourniquet time, visual analog scale (VAS) satisfaction score, and anesthetic-related complications.

METHODS

A total of 3312 cases (2597 patients) from January 2010 to April 2015 were analyzed retrospectively. A senior author performed ultrasound-guided nerve block of the lateral femoral cutaneous nerve (LFCN, 630 cases), femoral nerve (FN, 2503 cases), obturator nerve (ON, 366 cases), sciatic nerve (SN, 3271 cases), or posterior femoral cutaneous nerve (PFCN, 222 cases) depending on the type of surgery. Time required for nerve block, anesthesia onset time, duration of anesthesia, duration of analgesia, tolerable tourniquet time, VAS satisfaction score, and anesthetic-related complications were analyzed.

RESULTS

The mean times required were 1.1 min for SN block, 2.5 min for FN/SN block (1762 cases), and 4.8 min for FN/SN/LFCN/ON block. The mean anesthesia onset time was 48 min. The mean durations of anesthesia were 4.5 h for FN dermatome and 5.6 h for SN dermatome. The mean duration of analgesia was 11.5 h. The mean tolerable tourniquet times after were 35, 51, and 84 min after SN block, FN/SN block, and FN/SN/LFCN/ON block, respectively. The mean VAS satisfaction score was 9.3. There were no anesthetic-related complications, such as infection, hematoma, paralysis, or nerve irritation.

CONCLUSION

Selective block of the LFCN, FN, ON, SN, and PFCN based on the locations of lesions and type of surgery showed favorable clinical results with high efficacy. Ultrasound-guided nerve block may be a good option for anesthesia and analgesia in lower-extremity surgery.

Comparison of Regional Anesthesia Timing on Pain, Opioid Use, and Postanesthesia Care Unit Length of Stay in Patients Undergoing Open Reduction and Internal Fixation of Ankle Fractures

Regional nerve blocks are an effective method of managing acute pain associated with surgery. The relative benefit of preoperative versus postoperative peripheral nerve blocks is not entirely clear. The primary aim of this study was to determine differences in pain scores in patients undergoing preoperative block versus postoperative block versus no block. We hypothesized that patients receiving preoperative blocks would have reduced pain scores and decreased opioid use in the immediate postoperative period. We conducted a retrospective cohort analysis of 302 consecutive patients undergoing unilateral open reduction and internal fixation of ankle fracture under general anesthesia. We identified 3 groups: preoperative block, postoperative block, or no block. Data obtained from our electronic medical records included demographic information, postanesthesia care unit length of stay, pain scores obtained preoperatively, upon arrival to the postanesthesia care unit, and upon discharge from the postanesthesia care unit as well as intraoperative and postanesthesia care unit opioid utilization. Patients receiving preoperative block had significantly lower pain scores, less intraoperative or postanesthesia care unit opioid use, and shorter postanesthesia care unit dwell time compared with patients receiving postoperative block or no block. Preoperative popliteal sciatic and adductor canal blocks in patients undergoing ankle fracture surgery appears to be more effective than either postoperative block or no block.

Combination Lower Extremity Nerve Blocks and Their Effect on Postoperative Pain and Opioid Consumption: A Systematic Review

The purpose of this study was to perform a systematic review of the literature examining postoperative outcomes following single site and combined peripheral nerve blocks (PNBs), including (1) sciatic and femoral nerve, (2) popliteal and saphenous nerve, and (3) popliteal and ankle nerve, during elective foot and ankle surgery. We hypothesized that combination blocks would decrease postoperative narcotic consumption and afford more effective postoperative pain control as compared to general anesthesia, spinal anesthesia, or single site PNBs. A review of the literature was performed according to the PRISMA guidelines. Medline, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library were searched from January 2009 to October 2019. We identified studies by using synonyms for "foot," "ankle" "pain management," "opioid," and "nerve block." Included articles explicitly focused on elective foot and ankle procedures performed under general anesthesia, spinal anesthesia, PNB, or with some combination of these techniques. PNB techniques included femoral, adductor canal, sciatic, popliteal, saphenous, and ankle blocks, as well as blocks that combined multiple anatomic sites. Outcomes measured included postoperative narcotic consumption as well as patient-reported efficacy of pain control. Twenty-eight studies encompassing 6703 patients were included. Of the included studies, 57% were randomized controlled trials, 18% were prospective comparison studies, and 25% were retrospective comparison studies. Postoperative opioid consumption and postoperative pain levels were reduced over the first 24 to 48 hours with the use of combined PNBs when compared with single site PNBs, both when used as primary anesthesia or when used in concert with general anesthesia either alone or combined with systemic/local anesthesia in the first 24 to 48 hours following surgery. Studies demonstrated higher reported patient satisfaction of postoperative pain control in patients who received combined PNB. Nine of 14 (64%) studies reported no neurologic related complications with an overall reported rate among all studies ranging from 0% to 41%. Our study identified substantial improvement in postoperative pain levels, postoperative opioid consumption, and patient satisfaction in patients receiving PNB when compared with patients who did not receive PNB. Published data also demonstrated that combination PNB are more effective than single-site PNB for all data points. Notably, the addition of a femoral nerve block to a popliteal nerve block during use of a thigh tourniquet, as well as addition of either saphenous or ankle blockade to popliteal nerve block during use of calf tourniquet, may increase overall block effectiveness. Serious complications including neurologic damage following PNB administration are rare but do exist.

Retrospective chart review of perioperative pain management of patients having surgery for closed ankle fractures using peripheral nerve blocks at a level one trauma center

Chronic opioid use is unfortunately perceived among these postoperative patients, specifically within orthopedic surgery. Patients having orthopedic surgeries are at risk for becoming addicted to opioids, and one benefit of peripheral nerves blocks could be to provide an alternative mode of pain control. This study takes a retrospective look at the use of peripheral nerve blocks for pain control following surgery for isolated traumatic ankle injuries. We hypothesize that when peripheral nerve blocks are administered preoperatively to patients with closed ankle fractures, they will have overall better control of postoperative pain compared to patients who did not receive a peripheral nerve block.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this investigation was to evaluate the effect of preoperative peripheral nerve blockade on pain outcomes after ankle fracture surgery.

METHODS

After approval from our institutional review board, a Current Procedural Terminology code search was performed of all patients within our institution over a 3-year data collection period (August 2016-June 2019). This resulted in 177 subjects who underwent isolated closed ankle fracture open reduction internal fixation (ORIF), of which 71 subjects met inclusion criteria.

RESULTS

Results of the primary outcome measures found no difference in the mean postoperative care unit (PACU) pain scores between the groups (2.39 ± 2.91 vs 3.52 ± 3.09; P = 0.1724) nor the frequency of those who reported only mild pain (63.0% vs 47.10%; P = 0.2704). Subjects who received a peripheral nerve block spent more time in the PACU before discharge (2.06 ± 1.05 vs 0.94 ± 1.21 hours; P = 0.0004). Subjects receiving a peripheral nerve block were more likely to be given no analgesics in the PACU (38.9% vs 11.8%; P = 0.042) and less likely to receive a narcotic analgesic in the PACU (53.7% vs 82.4%; P = 0.047).

CONCLUSION

Although the results of this investigation demonstrate no significant difference in the mean PACU pain scores, they do demonstrate a significant difference in the amount of pain medication given in the PACU setting. This information will be used for future investigations of this discrepancy between pain perception and need for immediate postoperative pain medications as it relates to multimodal pain control in the setting of ankle fracture surgery.

Mobility Limitation After Surgery for Degenerative Pathology of the Ankle, Hindfoot, and Midfoot vs Total Hip Arthroplasty

BACKGROUND

Surgery for degenerative foot and ankle conditions often results in a lengthy recovery. Current outcome measures do not accurately assess postoperative mobility, especially in older patients. The Life-Space Assessment (LSA), a questionnaire quantifying patients' mobility after a medical event, was used in this study to assess perioperative mobility in total hip arthroplasty (THA) and foot and ankle surgery patients. We hypothesized that patients undergoing elective foot and ankle surgery would have greater postoperative mobility limitation than THA patients.

METHODS

Preoperative, 3-month, and 6-month postoperative LSA data were collected from THA and foot and ankle cohorts. Twelve-month postoperative data were obtained for the foot and ankle group as well. Patient demographics were recorded, and data were analyzed using a Mann-Whitney U test.

RESULTS

Twenty-eight degenerative foot and ankle operative patients and 38 THA patients met inclusion criteria. Only patients aged ≥60 years were included in this study. The mean preoperative LSA score was lower in the foot and ankle group (68.8) compared with THA (74.0), although the difference was not statistically significant (P = .602). THA patients showed a significant increase in LSA score from preoperative (74) to 6 months postoperation (95.9) (P = .003); however, foot and ankle patients showed no significant difference between preoperative (68.8) and 6-month (61.2) scores (P = .468). Twelve months postoperatively, foot and ankle patients showed improvement in LSA score (88.3) compared with preoperation (P = .065).

CONCLUSION

Compared with THA, recovery of mobility after foot and ankle surgery was slower. THA patients exhibited improved mobility as early as 3 months after surgery, whereas foot and ankle patients did not show full improvement until 12 months. This work will assist the foot and ankle specialist in educating patients about challenges in mobility during their recovery from surgery.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level II, prospective cohort study.