Deep eutectic solvent assisted synthesis of carbon dots using Sophora flavescens Aiton modified with polyethyleneimine: Application in myricetin sensing and cell imaging

Deep eutectic solvent-assisted carbon quantum dots from biomass Triticum aestivum: A fluorescent sensor for nanomolar detection of dual analytes mercury (Ⅱ) and glutathione

Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have attracted significant attention in recent years due to its environment friendly characteristics and its participation in the multi-heteroatom doping of carbon quantum dots (CQDs). In this work, we present a simple, fast, and environment-friendly microwave synthesis approach for the synthesis of DES-assisted nitrogen and chloride co-doped CQDs (N,Cl-CQDs) using a choline chloride-urea based DES. A biomass-based precursor, i.e., wheatgrass (Triticum aestivum), has been used as a carbon source. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed the spherical shape with average 1.75 nm particle diameter of prepared CQDs. The surface functionality and chemical composition of prepared N,Cl-CQDs were determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopic techniques. The N,Cl-CQDs obtained a high quantum yield (QY), i.e., 36 %, compared to undoped CQDs, which were synthesized in an aqueous medium (QY = 15 %). The prepared N,Cl-CQDs showed significant properties such as excellent photostability, favorable water solubility, and high optical stability. N,Cl-CQDs were used as sensing platform for the detection of Hg2+ ions and GSH with LOD value of 39 nM and 43 nM, respectively. The fluorescence quenching mechanism was confirmed by several photophysical parameters, such as average lifetime values, radiative rate constant (k r ), non-radiative rate constant (knr) and others. Furthermore, the current sensing system's viability is also tested in a river water sample for the detection of Hg2+. The N,Cl-CQDs prepared in this study exhibited a reduced detection limit and a broad linear range by an easy, environmentally friendly, and rapid method for detecting GSH and Hg2+ ions.

Application of carbon quantum dots as fluorescent probes in the detection of antibiotics and heavy metals

Carbon quantum dots (CQDs) are ideal fluorescent probes for rapid detection. This paper reviews the synthesis methods of CQDs, their application in the rapid detection of antibiotics and heavy metals in the environment and food, and the underlying detection mechanisms. The hydrothermal method is the most commonly used for synthesis, and CQDs doped with heteroatoms (such as N, P and S) exhibit superior fluorescence performance. In the presence of antibiotics and heavy metals, the fluorescence of CQDs can be quenched or enhanced. Single-signal and dual-signal probes can be developed using the fluorescence, phosphorescence and absorbance of CQDs, enabling rapid detection of various antibiotics (e.g., tetracycline, quinolone and beta-lactam antibiotics) and heavy metals (e.g., Cd2+, Cr6+, Fe3+, Hg2+, and Pb2+). With the combination of smartphones and fluorescent probe test strips developed based on CQDs, on-the-spot rapid detection can be realized. This review offers new insights into the rapid detection of CQDs.

Recent Trends and Advancements in Green Synthesis of Biomass-Derived Carbon Dots

The push for sustainability in nanomaterials has catalyzed significant advancements in the green synthesis of carbon dots (CDs) from renewable resources. This review uniquely explores recent innovations, including the integration of hybrid techniques, such as micro-wave-assisted and ultrasonic-assisted hydrothermal methods, as well as photocatalytic synthesis. These combined approaches represent a breakthrough, offering rapid production, precise control over CD properties, and enhanced environmental sustainability. In addition, the review emphasizes the growing use of green solvents and bio-based reducing agents, which further reduce the environmental footprint of CD production. This work also addresses key challenges, such as consistently controlling CD properties—size, shape, and surface characteristics—across different synthesis processes. Advanced characterization techniques and process optimizations are highlighted as essential strategies to overcome these hurdles. Furthermore, this review pioneers the integration of circular economy principles into CD production, proposing novel strategies for sustainable material use and waste reduction. By exploring innovative precursor materials, refining doping and surface engineering techniques, and advocating for comprehensive life cycle assessments, this work sets a new direction for future research. The insights provided here represent a significant contribution to the field, paving the way for more sustainable, efficient, and scalable CD production with diverse applications in optoelectronics, sensing, and environmental remediation.

Quantum dots as advanced nanomaterials for food quality and safety applications: A comprehensive review and future perspectives

The importance of food quality and safety lies in ensuring the best product quality to meet consumer demands and public health. Advanced technologies play a crucial role in minimizing the risk of foodborne illnesses, contamination, drug residue, and other potential hazards in food. Significant materials and technological advancements have been made throughout the food supply chain. Among them, quantum dots (QDs), as a class of advanced nanomaterials with unique physicochemical properties, are progressively demonstrating their value in the field of food quality and safety. This review aims to explore cutting-edge research on the different applications of QDs in food quality and safety, including encapsulation of bioactive compounds, detection of food analytes, food preservation and packaging, and intelligent food freshness indicators. Moreover, the modification strategies and potential toxicities of diverse QDs are outlined, which can affect performance and hinder applications in the food industry. The findings suggested that QDs are mainly used in analyte detection and active/intelligent food packaging. Various food analytes can be detected using QD-based sensors, including heavy metal ions, pesticides, antibiotics, microorganisms, additives, and functional components. Moreover, QD incorporation aided in improving the antibacterial and antioxidant activities of film/coatings, resulting in extended shelf life for packaged food. Finally, the perspectives and critical challenges for the productivity, toxicity, and practical application of QDs are also summarized. By consolidating these essential aspects into this review, the way for developing high-performance QD-based nanomaterials is presented for researchers and food technologists to better capitalize upon this technology in food applications.

Synthesizing Carbon Quantum Dots via Hydrothermal Reaction to Produce Efficient Antibacterial and Antibiofilm Nanomaterials

This study aimed to synthesize antibacterial carbon quantum dots (SP-CDs) from polyethyleneimine and spermidine via hydrothermal reaction. It was revealed that SP-CDs, with small size (7.18 nm) and high positive charge (+31.15 mV), had good fluorescence properties and lots of amino groups on their surfaces. The inhibition effect of SP-CDs on Staphylococcus aureus was better than that towards Escherichia coli, and the SP-CDs also had an inhibitory effect on multi-drug-resistant E. coli. The mechanism of SP-CDs shows that the SP-CDs were adsorbed on the surface of the negatively charged cell membrane through electrostatic interaction. SP-CDs can cause changes in membrane permeability, resulting in a shift of the cell membrane from order to disorder and the decomposition of chemical components, followed by the leakage of cell contents, resulting in bacterial death. SP-CDs can also significantly inhibit biofilm formation, destroy mature biofilms and reduce the number of living cells. Moreover, SP-CDs had negligible antimicrobial resistance even after 18 generations of treatment. This study proves that SP-CDs effectively inhibit the proliferation of foodborne pathogens, providing new feasibility for the application of carbon-based nanomaterials in the food industry.

Solvothermal synthesis of bifunctional carbon dots for tartrazine and Fe(III) detection from chamomile residue by ternary DES pretreatment

A ternary deep eutectic solvent (DES) consisting of choline chloride, lactic acid, and urea in a molar ratio of 1:2:2 was used to pretreat chamomile residue, followed by carbon dots (CDs) preparation using a one-pot solvothermal method. The CDs prepared under the suitable conditions had a high quantum yield of 47.34% and could be used as a bifunctional fluorescent probe for the detection of tartrazine and Fe(III). The concentration of tartrazine or Fe(III) had a good linear relationship with the fluorescence intensity of CDs that the determination coefficient (R²) was 0.9957 and 0.9943, and the limit of detection (LOD) was 40 nM and 119 nM, respectively. After verifying the different fluorescence quenching mechanisms of CDs by these two substances, a quantitative analysis was performed on real samples with recoveries of 90.70%∼104.29%. Overall, this study provided a promising technology for chemical conversion from low-cost chamomile residue to attractive bifunctional fluorescent probe.

Detection of organic pollutants, food additives and antibiotics using sustainable carbon dots

The ecosystem across the globe has been adversely affected due to the adoption of unsustainable growth strategies. Overuse of organic pollutants such as dyes, pesticides, disinfectants, food additives and antibiotics, along with their release into the environment without proper treatment has severely affected the food chain and water bodies, hence ultimately the human race. As the organic contaminants, being non-biodegradable, persist in the environment for a long duration, a sustainable method for the detection of these harmful organic pollutants is essential. For food safety and restoration of ecological balance, simple, non-toxic, cost-effective and environmentally friendly green precursor derived carbon dots (CDs) are favorable as compared to inorganic nanoparticles (CdTe, CdS etc.) and chemically derived CDs. This review covers the summary of the studies devoted to the optical detection of organic pollutants, food additives and antibiotics through green precursor derived CDs, reported during the last few years. The upcoming studies of optical sensing systems with sustainable CDs provide powerful insight towards pollutant detection, as well as act as a future monitoring tool.

Highly photoluminescent nitrogen-doped carbon quantum dots as a green fluorescence probe for determination of myricetin

Highly photoluminescent N-doped carbon quantum dots (N-CDs) which the quantum yield reached 63% were prepared through hydrothermal treatment. The obtained N-CDs displayed a uniform distribution of particle size, superior stability in high-salt conditions, and excellent sensitivity. A green fluorescence probe based on N-CDs was constructed for ultrasensitive determination of myricetin in vine tea on account of the static quenching. The N-CDs presented excellent linear fluorescence response in the concentration range of 0.2-40 μM and 56-112 μM and with a low detection limit of 56 nM. Additionally, the practicability of the probe was verified in spiked vine tea sample, and the satisfactory recoveries of myricetin varied from 98.8% to 101.2%, with relative standard deviations in the range of 1.52%-3.48%. It is the first time to employ N-CDs without any material modification as a fluorescence sensor to detect myricetin, which is a promising approach to expand the path for myricetin screening.

Assembly-Induced Emission Enhancement in Glutathione-Capped Bimetallic Gold and Copper Nanoclusters by Al3+ Ions and Further Application in Myricetin Determination

A significant emission enhancement (>100-fold) of glutathione-capped bimetallic gold and copper nanoclusters (AuCuNC@GSH) was achieved by assembling with Al3+ ions and by assembly-induced emission enhancement (AIEE). Further chelation of myricetin to Al3+ resulted in emission quenching of AuCuNC-Al3+, which was applied to specifically detect myricetin. Two linear responses were shown in the range of 0−1.5 μM and 1.5−50 μM, separately, leading to a low limit of detection at 8.7 nM. The method was successfully and accurately applied to myricetin determination in grape juice, which showed good application for real samples. Finally, the in-depth mechanism revealed that both the chelation of myricetin and Al3+ and the inner filter effect (IFE) between myricetin-Al3+ and AuCuNC-Al3+ greatly contributed to the quenching response of myricetin. Therefore, the present study provides an easy way to improve the fluorescence property of metal nanoclusters. Additionally, it supplies a cost-effective and easily performed approach to detect myricetin with high selectivity and sensitivity.

Tetrabutylammonium-chloride-glycerol of deep eutectic solvent functionalized MnO2: a novel mimic enzyme for the quantitative and qualitative colorimetric detection of L-cysteine

L-Cysteine is a common amino acid that plays an important role in human livelihood and production. Therefore, a novel method for the simultaneous quantitative and qualitative determination of L-cysteine by a colorimetric detection system is proposed. As a viable oxidase mimic, [N₄₄₄₄]Cl-G/MnO₂, which consisted of MnO₂ nanosheets functionalized by a tetrabutylammonium chloride-glycerol ([N₄₄₄₄]Cl-G) based deep eutectic solvent (DES) was fabricated. Owing to the oxidation of MnO₂ nanosheets, [N₄₄₄₄]Cl-G/MnO₂ could oxidize the colorless 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) into a blue product (oxTMB) with the characteristic UV-vis spectrum absorbance at 652 nm. The oxidation of TMB by DES/MnO₂ was inhibited when L-cysteine was introduced, and the absorbance decreased proportionally with the increase in L-cysteine concentration. Due to this inhibition effect, a colorimetric detection system ([N₄₄₄₄]Cl-G/MnO₂-TMB) was developed for the quantitative determination of L-cysteine. Under optimal conditions, the assay showed good linearity over the concentration range of 0.125-2.00 μg mL^-1 with a low detection limit of 5.96 ng mL^-1. A study of the inhibition mechanism demonstrated that the sulfhydryl group of L-cysteine could decompose [N₄₄₄₄]Cl-G/MnO₂ into Mn²⁺, thus limiting the conversion of TMB to oxTMB. In addition, the [N₄₄₄₄]Cl-G/MnO₂-TMB system was used in test strips for the visual qualitative detection of L-cysteine. The selectivity and test strip results demonstrated the high selectivity, simple operation, and rapid response of the [N₄₄₄₄]Cl-G/MnO₂-TMB system for the qualitative detection of L-cysteine. Given the satisfying performance of the detection strategy, colorimetric sensing based on the [N₄₄₄₄]Cl-G/MnO₂-TMB system is considered to have prospective application value in the quantitative and qualitative detection of L-cysteine.

Deep eutectic solvents-derivated carbon dots-decorated silica stationary phase with enhanced separation selectivity in reversed-phase liquid chromatography

In this work, deep eutectic solvents-based carbon dots (DESCDs) were prepared and bonded to the silica surface for the first time to form a new hydrophobic chromatographic stationary phase (Sil-DESCDs). The successful preparation of DESCDs and Sil-DESCDs were demonstrated by a series of characterizations including transmission electron microscopies, laser scanning confocal microscope, Fourier transform infrared spectrometry, elemental analysis, etc. Retention behavior of Sil-DESCDs was evaluated using Tanaka and Engelhardt standard test mixtures. The results showed that this new stationary phase had excellent separation performance for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, flavonoids, aromatic amines and phenolic compounds. Excellent separation selectivity for the 3-phenylene ring isomers including phenanthrene and anthracene, the 4-phenylene ring isomers including pyrene, triphenylene, chrysene and 1,2-benzanthracene was also obtained. Especially, prednisolone and hydrocortisone, which have very similar structures, can be separated using pure water as the mobile phase. In addition, the flavonoids in Astragalus extracts including calycosin-7-glucoside, ononin, calycosin and formononetin were determined using this new column, their concentrations were 0.050, 0.031, 0.023 and 0.034 mg/mL, respectively.

Advances on Cyclocarya paliurus polyphenols: Extraction, structures, bioactivities and future perspectives

Cyclocaryapaliurus (C. paliurus) is an edible and medicinal plant, distributed in southern China. As a kind of new food raw material, the leaves of C. paliurus are processed as tea products in daily life. C. paliurus is recognized as a good source to polyphenols, showing excellent bioactivities, which has attracted more and more attention. Polyphenols are important functional bioactive components in C. paliurus. C. paliurus polyphenols perform nutritional functions in anti-diabetes, anti-hyperlipidemic, anti-obesity, anti-oxidant, and other activities. In this review, we summarize the research progress of extraction technologies, structural characteristics, and bioactivities of C. paliurus polyphenols. Other potential functions of C. paliurus polyphenols are prospected. This review provides a reference for further research and applications of C. paliurus polyphenols in a field of functional food and medicines.

Combined Metabolome and Transcriptome Analyses Reveal the Flavonoids Changes and Biosynthesis Mechanisms in Different Organs of Hibiseu manihot L

Hibiseu manihot L. (Jinhuakui, JHK), also known as a garden landscape plant, is widely cultivated as a landscape plant having pharmacological effects due to its high flavonoids content. Although flavonoids were the main active pharmaceutical ingredients in JHK, little information was obtained about the content, composition, and accumulation pattern of flavonoids in different tissues. Most studies only identified a few kinds of flavonoids in JHK limited by separation and identification problems. Therefore, combined metabolome and transcriptome analysis was performed to explore the accumulation patterns and biosynthesis mechanisms of flavonoids in JHK. In this study, we identified 160 flavonoids in 15 samples of JHK (flower, leaf, root, stem, and seeds) by using LC-MS/MS. Consistent with the total flavonoid content determination, these flavonoids were significantly accumulated in flowers, followed by leaves, stems, roots, and seeds. Among them, certain flavonoids, with high content, were also identified for the first time in JHK, such as tricetin, catechin, hesperidin, ncyanidin-3-O-sambubioside, astragalin, procyanidin B2/B3/C1, apigenin-5-O-glucoside, etc. Different tissues underwent significantly reprogramming of their transcriptomes and metabolites changes in JHK, particularly in the flavonoid, flavone, and flavonol biosynthesis pathways. We conducted a correlation analysis between RNA-seq and LC-MS/MS to identify the key genes and related flavonoids compounds, rebuild the gene-metabolites regulatory subnetworks, and then identified 15 key genes highly related to flavonoids accumulation in JHK. These key genes might play a fine regulatory role in flavonoids biosynthesis by affecting the gene expression level in different organs of JHK. Our results could be helpful for the improvement of the market/industrial utilization value of different parts of JHK, to pave the way for the regulatory mechanism research of flavonoids biosynthesis, and provide insight for studying the production quality improvement of JHK.

N,Cl-Codoped Carbon Dots from Impatiens balsamina L. Stems and a Deep Eutectic Solvent and Their Applications for Gram-Positive Bacteria Identification, Antibacterial Activity, Cell Imaging, and ClO- Sensing

In this study, we first synthesized metal-free N,Cl-doped carbon dots (N,Cl-CDs) using Impatiens balsamina L. stems as green precursors in a deep eutectic solvent (DES). The obtained N,Cl-CDs were characterized through transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, fluorescence (FL) spectroscopy, and ultraviolet (UV) spectroscopy. In addition to the common features of carbon dots (CDs), such as high light stability, small size, low toxicity, good aqueous solubility, and favorable biocompatibility, these N,Cl-CDs exhibited excellent recognition and selectivity for Gram-positive bacteria by doping with N and Cl elements using DES. The N,Cl-CDs with positive charge cannot only differentiate Gram-positive bacteria by selective fluorescence imaging but also have antibacterial effects on Gram-positive bacteria. Through potential, ROS, and morphological analyses of bacteria before and after treatment with N,Cl-CDs, the antibacterial mechanisms of bacteriostasis, Enterococcus faecium, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Salmonella were explored. In addition, N,Cl-CDs demonstrated low cytotoxicity and good cell imaging ability in cancer and normal cells. Moreover, they can be used as a fluorescence sensor for the detection of ClO- with a detection range from 100 nM to 40 μM and a limit of detection (LOD) of 30 nM. In summary, the prepared N,Cl-CDs could be applied as environmentally friendly Gram-positive bacterial identification and antibacterial agents. Additionally, their cell imaging and ClO- detection abilities were outstanding.

Highly Crystalline Covalent Organic Frameworks Act as a Dual-Functional Fluorescent-Sensing Platform for Myricetin and Water, and Adsorbents for Myricetin

Selective detection of active ingredients in complex samples has always been a crucial challenge because there are many disturbing compounds, especially structural analogues that interfere with the detection. In this work, a fluorescent covalent organic framework (named COF-TD), which can be used for the selective fluorescence detection and enrichment of myricetin from complex samples, was reported for the first time. The highly crystalline COF-TD with bright blue fluorescence was formed through a solution polymerization method by the condensation reaction between 4,4',4″-(1,3,5-triazine-2,4,6-triyl)trianiline and 2,5-dihydroxy-1,4-benzenedicarboxaldehyde. Due to spatial size selectivity, multisites hydrogen bonding, and π-π interaction, myricetin can quench the fluorescence of COF-TD with an inner filter effect (IFE) and static quenching mechanisms as well as can be enriched on COF-TD. Myricetin can observably eliminate the interference of other compounds and selectively quench the fluorescence of COF-TD with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.30 μg·mL^-1. The high adsorption ability of COF-TD (Q = 124.6 mg·g^-1) to myricetin was also obtained. Finally, a sensing platform based on COF-TD for myricetin was successfully developed and applied for the detection of myricetin from vine teas. In addition, COF-TD also showed good water sensing ability and could be used effectively to detect water content in organic solvent (1-18% water in acetone, 0.5-5% water in acetonitrile, 1-4.5% water in ethyl acetate, v/v). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report where COF-TD was used to detect water in a relatively wide concentration range. In all, this work provided dual-functional fluorescent COFs with the properties of an adsorbent, opening up new methodologies for the simple, selective, and enrichment detection method for myricetin.

Recent Developments in Carbon Quantum Dots: Properties, Fabrication Techniques, and Bio-Applications

Carbon dots have gained tremendous interest attributable to their unique features. Two approaches are involved in the fabrication of quantum dots (Top-down and Bottom-up). Most of the synthesis methods are usually multistep, required harsh conditions, and costly carbon sources that may have a toxic effect, therefore green synthesis is more preferable. Herein, the current review presents the green synthesis of carbon quantum dots (CQDs) and graphene quantum dots (GQDs) that having a wide range of potential applications in bio-sensing, cellular imaging, and drug delivery. However, some drawbacks and limitations are still unclear. Other biomedical and biotechnological applications are also highlighted.