Ultrasonic microencapsulation of oil-soluble vitamins by hen egg white and green tea for fortification of food

Microencapsulation of vitamins: A review and meta-analysis of coating materials, release and food fortification

Vitamins are responsible for providing biological properties to the human body; however, their instability under certain environmental conditions limits their utilization in the food industry. The objective was to conduct a systematic review on the use of biopolymers and lipid bases in microencapsulation processes, assessing their impact on the stability, controlled release, and viability of fortified foods with microencapsulated vitamins. The literature search was conducted between the years 2013-2023, gathering information from databases such as Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science and publishers including Taylor & Francis, Elsevier, Springer and MDPI; a total of 49 articles were compiled The results were classified according to the microencapsulation method, considering the following information: core, coating material, solvent, formulation, process conditions, particle size, efficiency, yield, bioavailability, bioaccessibility, in vitro release, correlation coefficient and references. It has been evidenced that gums are the most frequently employed coatings in the protection of vitamins (14.04%), followed by alginate (10.53%), modified chitosan (9.65%), whey protein (8.77%), lipid bases (8.77%), chitosan (7.89%), modified starch (7.89%), starch (7.02%), gelatin (6.14%), maltodextrin (5.26%), zein (3.51%), pectin (2.63%) and other materials (7.89%). The factors influencing the release of vitamins include pH, modification of the coating material and crosslinking agents; additionally, it was determined that the most fitting mathematical model for release values is Weibull, followed by Zero Order, Higuchi and Korsmeyer-Peppas; finally, foods commonly fortified with microencapsulated vitamins were described, with yogurt, bakery products and gummy candies being notable examples.

New perspective on protein-based microcapsules as delivery vehicles for sensitive substances: A review

Sensitive substances have attracted wide attention due to their rich functional activities, such as antibiosis activities, antioxidant activities and prevent disease, etc. However, the low stability of sensitive substances limits their bioavailability and functional activities. Protein-based microcapsules can encapsulate sensitive substances to improve their adverse properties due to their good stability, strong emulsifying ability and wide source. Therefore, it is necessary to fully elaborate and summarize protein-based microcapsules to maximize their potential benefits in nutritional interventions. The focus of this review is to highlight the classification of protein-based microcapsules. In addition, the principles, advantages and disadvantages of preparation methods for protein-based microcapsules are summarized. Some novel preparation methods for protein-based microcapsules are also emphasized. Moreover, the mechanism of protein-based microcapsules that release sensitive substances in vitro is elucidated and summarized. Furthermore, the applications of protein-based microcapsules are outlined. Protein-based microcapsules can effectively encapsulate sensitive substances, which improve their bioavailability, and provide protective effects during storage and gastrointestinal digestion. In addition, microcapsules can improve the sensory quality of food and enhance its stability. The performance of protein-based microcapsules for delivering sensitive substances is influenced by factors such as protein type, the ratio between protein ratio and the other wall material, the preparation process, etc. Future research should focus on the new composite protein-based microcapsule delivery system, which can be applied to in vivo research and have synergistic effects and precise nutritional functions. In summary, protein-based microcapsules have broader research prospects in the functional foods and nutrition field.

Advances in protein-based microcapsules and their applications: A review

Due to their excellent emulsification, biocompatibility, and biological activity, proteins are widely used as microcapsule wall materials for encapsulating drugs, natural bioactive substances, essential oils, probiotics, etc. In this review, we summarize the protein-based microcapsules, discussing the types of proteins utilized in microcapsule wall materials, the preparation process, and the main factors that influence their properties. Additionally, we conclude with examples of the vital role of protein-based microcapsules in advancing the food industry from primary processing to deep processing and their potential applications in the biomedical, chemical, and textile industries. However, the low stability and controllability of protein wall materials lead to degraded performance and quality of microcapsules. Protein complexes with polysaccharides or modifications to proteins are often used to improve the thermal instability, pH sensitivity, encapsulation efficiency and antioxidant capacity of microcapsules. In addition, factors such as wall material composition, wall material ratio, the ratio of core to wall material, pH, and preparation method all play critical roles in the preparation and performance of microcapsules. The application area and scope of protein-based microcapsules can be further expanded by optimizing the preparation process and studying the microcapsule release mechanism and control strategy.

Ultrasound-Assisted Encapsulation of Phytochemicals for Food Applications: A Review

The use of phytochemicals as natural food additives is a topic of interest for both academic and food industry communities. However, many of these substances are sensitive to environmental conditions. For this reason, encapsulation is usually performed prior to incorporation into food products. In this sense, ultrasound-assisted encapsulation is an emerging technique that has been gaining attention in this field, bringing important advantages for the production of functional food products. This review article covered applications published in the last five years (from 2019 to 2023) on the use of ultrasound to encapsulate phytochemicals for further incorporation into food. The ultrasound mechanisms for encapsulation, its parameters, such as reactor configuration, frequency, and power, and the use of ultrasound technology, along with conventional encapsulation techniques, were all discussed. Additionally, the main challenges of existing methods and future possibilities were discussed. In general, ultrasound-assisted encapsulation has been considered a great tool for the production of smaller capsules with a lower polydispersity index. Encapsulated materials also present a higher bioavailability. However, there is still room for further developments regarding process scale-up for industrial applications. Future studies should also focus on incorporating produced capsules in model food products to further assess their stability and sensory properties.

Optimization of food-grade colloidal delivery systems for thermal processing applications: a review

Colloidal delivery systems are widely used in the food industry to enhance the dispersibility, stability, efficacy, or bioavailability. However, when exposed to the high temperature, delivery systems are often prone to degradation, which limits its application in thermal processing. In this paper, the effects of thermal processing on the performance of traditional protein-based or starch-based delivery systems are firstly described, including the molecular structure changes of proteins, starches or lipids, and the degradation of embedded substances. These effects are unfavorable to the application of the delivery system in thermal processing. Then, strategies of improving the heat resistance of food grade colloid delivery system and their use in frying, baking and cooking food are mainly introduced. The heat resistance of the delivery system can be improved by a variety of strategies, including the development of new heat-resistant materials, the addition of heat-resistant coatings to the surface of delivery systems, the cross-linking of proteins or starches using cross-linking agents, the design of particle structures, the use of physical means such as ultrasound, or the optimization of the ingredient formula. These strategies will help to expand the application of heat-resistant delivery systems so that they can be used in real thermal processing.

Recent advances in encapsulation of fat-soluble vitamins using polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids: A review on delivery systems, formulation, and industrial applications

Fat-soluble vitamins (FSVs) offer a range of beneficial properties as important nutrients in human nutrition. However, the high susceptibility to environmental conditions such as high temperature, light, and oxygen leads to the degradation of these compounds. This review highlights the different formulations underlying the encapsulation of FSVs in biopolymer (polysaccharide and protein) and lipid-based micro or nanocarriers for potential applications in food and pharmaceutical industries. In particular, the function of these carrier systems in terms of encapsulation efficiency, stability, bioavailability, and bio-accessibility is critically discussed. Recently, tremendous attention has been paid to encapsulating FSVs in commercial applications. According to the chemical nature of the active compound, the vigilant selection of delivery formulation, method of encapsulation, and final application (type of food) are the key important factors to be considered in the encapsulation of FSVs to ensure a high loading capacity, stability, bioavailability, and bio-accessibility. Future studies are recommended on the effect of different vitamin types and micro and nano encapsulate sizes on bioaccessibility and biocompatibility through in vitro/in vivo studies. Moreover, the toxicity and safety evaluation of encapsulated FSVs in human health should be evaluated before commercial application in food and pharmaceuticals.

Efficient Utilization of Tea Resources through Encapsulation: Dual Perspectives from Core Material to Wall Material

With the high production and consumption of tea around the world, efficient utilization of tea byproducts (tea pruning, tea residues after production, and drinking) is the focus of improving the economy of the tea industry. This review comprehensively discusses the efficient utilization of tea resources by encapsulation from the dual perspectives of core material and wall material. The core material is mainly tea polyphenols, followed by tea oils. The encapsulation system for tea polyphenols includes microcapsules, nanoparticles, emulsions, gels, conjugates, metal-organic frameworks, liposomes, and nanofibers. In addition, it is also diversified for the encapsulation of tea oils. Tea resources as wall materials refer to tea saponins, tea polyphenols, tea proteins, and tea polysaccharides. The application of the tea-based delivery system widely involves functionally fortified food, meat preservation, film, medical treatment, wastewater treatment, and plant protection. In the future, the coencapsulation of tea resources as core materials and other functional ingredients, the precise targeting of these tea resources, and the wide application of tea resources in wall materials need to be focused on. In conclusion, the described technofunctional properties and future research challenges in this review should be followed.

Current Advantages in the Application of Microencapsulation in Functional Bread Development

Bread is one of the most widely embraced food products and is highly accepted by consumers. Despite being rich in complex carbohydrates (i.e., starch), bread is generally poor in other micro- and macronutrients. Rising consumer demand for healthier food has resulted in the growth of studies focused on bread fortification with bioactive ingredients (i.e., vitamins, prebiotics, and vegetable extracts). However, the baking process leads to the reduction (or even lessening) of the added substance. In addition, the direct inclusion of bioactive compounds and additives in bread has other limitations, such as adverse effects on sensory characteristics and undesirable interaction with other food ingredients. Encapsulation allows for overcoming these drawbacks and at the same time improves the overall quality and shelf-life of bread by controlling the release, protection, and uniform distribution of these compounds. In the last ten years, several studies have shown that including micro/nano-encapsulated bioactive substances instead of free compounds allows for the enrichment or fortification of bread, which can be achieved without negatively impacting its physicochemical and textural properties. This review aims to identify and highlight useful applications in the production of new functional bread through encapsulation technology, summarizing the heath benefit and the effect of microcapsule inclusion in dough and bread from a technological and sensory point of view.

Ultrasound-Assisted Extraction and the Encapsulation of Bioactive Components for Food Applications

Various potential sources of bioactive components exist in nature which are fairly underutilized due to the lack of a scientific approach that can be sustainable as well as practically feasible. The recovery of bioactive compounds is a big challenge and its use in food industry to develop functional foods is a promising area of research. Various techniques are available for the extraction of these bioactives but due to their thermolabile nature, there is demand for nonthermal or green technologies which can lower the cost of operation and decrease operational time and energy consumption as compared to conventional methods. Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) is gaining popularity due to its relative advantages over solvent extraction. Thereafter, ultrasonication as an encapsulating tool helps in protecting the core components against adverse food environmental conditions during processing and storage. The review mainly aims to discuss ultrasound technology, its applications, the fundamental principles of ultrasonic-assisted extraction and encapsulation, the parameters affecting them, and applications of ultrasound-assisted extraction and encapsulation in food systems. Additionally, future research areas are highlighted with an emphasis on the energy sustainability of the whole process.

Egg white protein-based delivery system for bioactive substances: a review

Some bioactive substances in food have problems such as poor solubility, unstable chemical properties and low bioavailability, which limits their application in functional food. Recently, many egg white protein-based delivery carriers have been developed to improve the chemical stability, biological activity and bioavailability of bioactive substances. This article reviewed the structure and properties of several major egg white proteins commonly used to construct bioactive substance delivery systems. Several common carrier types based on egg white proteins, including hydrogels, emulsions, micro/nanoparticles, aerogels and electrospinning were then introduced. The biological functions of common bioactive substances, the limitations, and the role of egg white protein-based delivery systems were also discussed. At present, whole egg white protein, ovalbumin and lysozyme are most widely used in delivery systems, while ovotransferrin, ovomucoid and ovomucin are less developed and applied. Egg white protein-based nanoparticles are currently the most commonly used delivery carriers. Egg white protein-based hydrogels, emulsions, and microparticles are also widely used. Future research on the application of various egg white proteins in developed new delivery systems will provide more choices for the delivery of various bioactive substances.

Sustainable aggregation-induced emission material based on pectin-l-lysine: Potential antibacterial and monitoring in food spoilage

The demand of smart food detection system which in detecting food spoilage is increasing. In this work, a new type of aggregation-induced emission (AIE) compound was synthesized based on pectin (P) and l-lysine (Lys). P-Lys is an AIE active compound which has the advantages of simple synthesis, easy modification and processability, it also has good water solubility and biocompatibility. Moreover, P-Lys has potential application in detecting Fe³⁺ (oxidation from Fe²⁺) and bacterial in monitoring pork spoilage. In addition, P-Lys also has spectral antibacterial properties which can prevent pork spoilage. The research results shown that P-Lys, as a new type of food testing agent has a useful future in monitoring and protecting the freshness of food.

Co-microencapsulation: a promising multi-approach technique for enhancement of functional properties

Co-microencapsulation is a growing technique in the food industry because it is a technique that, under the same fundamentals of microencapsulation, allows the generation of microcapsules with a longer shelf life, using a smaller number of encapsulating materials and a smaller amount of active compounds, while having a greater beneficial activity. This responds to consumer demand for higher quality foods that limit the use of ingredients with low nutritional content and provide beneficial health effects, such as probiotics, prebiotics, vitamins, fatty acids, and compounds with antioxidant activity. The combination of two or more active compounds that achieve a synergy between them and between the encapsulating materials offers an advantage over the well-known microencapsulation. Among the main active compounds used in this process are probiotics, prebiotics, fatty acids, and polyphenols, the main combination being that of probiotics with one of the other active compounds that enhances their benefits. The present review discusses the advantages and disadvantages of the different encapsulating materials and techniques used to obtain co-microencapsulants, where the main result is a higher survival of probiotics, higher stability of the active compounds and a more controlled release, which can lead to the generation of new foods, food supplements, or therapeutic foods for the treatment of common ailments.

Sound methods for the synthesis of nanoparticles from biological molecules

The development of simple, green, reproducible, and scalable approaches for synthesizing nanoparticles from biomolecules is important to advance nanomaterials towards therapeutic applications. Microreactors generated by high frequency ultrasound provide a one pot-platform to alter the physiochemical properties and stability of various types of biomolecules to ultimately generate multifunctional nanoparticles with controlled size and morphology. Herein, recent advancements in the field of nanoparticles fabrication from amino acids, phenolics, peptides and proteins using both high and low frequency ultrasound are reviewed. In particular, the sound driven self-assembly of biomolecules into nanoparticles by using high frequency ultrasound, as an emerging and innovative approach, is discussed in detail.

Insight into the structural, chemical and surface properties of proteins for the efficient ultrasound assisted co-encapsulation and delivery of micronutrients

Three different proteinaceous biopolymers, namely, egg white protein (EWP), soy protein isolate (SPI) and corn protein isolate (CPI) were used as protective shell materials to encapsulate micronutrients via an ultrasonic encapsulation technique. It was found that the physicochemical properties of the three protein-based matrices, including surface/total thiol (-SH) content, surface activity and denaturation temperature were the key factors that influenced the shell formation and stability. The EWP and CPI-shelled microcapsules reduced the degradation of the encapsulated vitamins by 20% and 40% after exposure to heating and UV-light irradiation. A double emulsion technique was further developed to co-encapsulate both oil- (vitamin A and D) and water-soluble (vitamin B, C and minerals) micronutrients. In-vitro digestion study showed that the proteinaceous microcapsules enable a sustained release of micronutrients, demonstrating their potential for food fortification applications.