Bioavailability and excretion profile of betacyanins - Variability and correlations between different excretion routes

Beetroot peel flour: Characterization, betalains profile, in silico ADMET properties and in vitro biological activity

The use of vegetable residues as a source of bioactive components is a global trend. The production of flours reintroduces these materials into the productive chain and extend their shelf-life. Processing may reduce the diversity of pigments present in the fresh matter. We analysed a beetroot peel flour (BPF) that presented relevant protein and fibre contents and preserved the colour of the in natura beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) due to the presence of betacyanins and betaxanthins. The bioavailability, pharmacokinetics and mutagenicity of the pigments were predicted using bioinformatics. No mutagenicity was confirmed according to the OECD guidelines. A chemoprotective effect and cancer cell anti-clone activities were observed. BPF processing ensured a good nutritional value and maintained this product as a good source of bioactive compounds and of pigments with antitumor activity, suggesting this vegetable residue as a food industry pigments source for use in the elaboration of functional products.

Extraction, stabilization, and health application of betalains: An update

Betalains are nitrogenous compounds principally produced by a select group of plants of the Caryophyllales order, characterized by the vibrant coloration on bracts, flowers, leaves, seeds, and fruits. Betalains are produced by tyrosine metabolism and derived from a common precursor: betalamic acid. They are categorized into two principal groups: betacyanins and betaxanthins. Their technological importance is of great interest to the food industry due to their role as a natural pigment. Still, in recent years, it also relied on its high biological potential such as free-radical scavenging, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, and anti-diabetic, among other applications. However, challenges related to their bioavailability and low stability have to be addressed. The review summarizes and analyses the most current advances in extraction methods to preserve their structure, the novel trends that guarantee their stability, and the most explored health applications of betalain extracts from various plant sources.

The Neuroprotective Potential of Betalains: A Focused Review

Betalains are natural, hydrophilic pigments present in a variety of plants from the order Caryophyllales, extensively used as non-toxic food colorants and antioxidants. In recent decades, betalains have been intensively researched, with numerous studies confirming their anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antinociceptive properties. More recently, due to a significant increase in the aging population worldwide, there has been growing interest in the study of preventive effects of betalains on age-related, degenerative brain diseases. The aim of this review is to evaluate the potential neuroprotective role of betalains in the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, as well as other types of neurodegenerative and ischemic brain injuries. Preclinical in vivo and in vitro pharmacological studies investigating the neuroprotective effects of betalains are reviewed, with a focus on the putative mechanisms of action. Available studies in humans are also presented.

Emerging Trends in Secondary Metabolite Research in Caryophyllales: Betalains and Their Roles in Plant Adaptation and Defense Mechanisms

Betalains, a distinctive group of nitrogen-containing pigments exclusive to the Caryophyllales order, possess diverse biological activities such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial properties, making them highly valuable for applications in food, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical industries. This Review provides a comprehensive analysis of betalain biosynthesis, structural diversity, and ecological significance, highlighting their roles in enhancing stress resilience, adaptation mechanisms, and plant evolutionary strategies. The evolutionary development of betalains is explored, revealing their emergence through gene duplication events and providing insights into their mutual exclusivity with anthocyanins. This study utilizes comparative genetics and advanced molecular tools to uncover the intricate regulatory networks involving transcription factors such as MYB, bHLH, WRKY, and SPL, which govern betalain biosynthesis. Furthermore, the Review discusses innovative transgenic studies that introduce betalains into non-native species, demonstrating their potential to enhance stress tolerance and boost agricultural productivity. While significant progress has been made in understanding betalain biosynthesis pathways, the evolutionary relationships with anthocyanins and the specific ecological functions of betalains in plants remain areas of ongoing exploration. Future research directions include integrating chemotaxonomic studies, molecular phylogenetics, and multiomics approaches to unravel the full spectrum of betalain functions and regulatory mechanisms. Such studies are essential to deepening our understanding of these vibrant pigments and their evolutionary implications, offering new opportunities for biotechnological innovations and sustainable agricultural practices. This Review stands out by combining genetic, ecological, and evolutionary perspectives, providing novel insights into the multifunctionality of betalains and their potential to drive future advancements in plant science and biotechnology.

Betalains: A Narrative Review on Pharmacological Mechanisms Supporting the Nutraceutical Potential Towards Health Benefits

Betalains are naturally occurring pigments sourced mainly from Beta vulgaris (beetroot), Hylocereus spp. (dragon fruit), Amaranthus spp., and Opuntia spp. Betalains are widely used for their vibrant colors and health-promoting properties. These nitrogenous, water-soluble pigments are crucial colorants in the food industry, responsible for the red, purple, and yellow plant tissues, predominantly in the order Caryophyllales. They are grouped into betacyanins, with reddish-violet hues, and betaxanthins, yellow to orange. Examples include beetroot stems for betacyanins and yellow pitaya pulp for betaxanthins. Several pharmacological activities were reviewed in the scientific literature, describing their potential implications for human health. In this review, we focused on the main and latest studies on the pharmacological effects and mechanisms of betalains, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antihypertensive, hypolipidemic, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, anticancer, and antimicrobial properties, in both in vitro and in vivo studies. Overall, betalain consumption is considered safe, with no major adverse effects or allergic reactions reported. We also approached topics such as the pharmacokinetics, bioavailability, stability, and enhanced stabilization of betalains. This article provides a comprehensive overview of bioactive potential of betalains, highlighting the biochemical mechanisms involved. The current knowledge broadens the clinical applicability of betalains, making them potential sources of nutraceutical compounds that can be used to develop functional foods.

Enterotype-Specific Effects of Red Beetroot (Beta vulgaris L.) Powder and Betanin on Human Gut Microbiota: A Preliminary Study Based on In Vitro Fecal Fermentation Model

Red beetroots, rich in betanin, may act as prebiotics and impact gut microbiota. Because the human gut microbiota is unique to each person, the effectiveness of prebiotics varies with the enterotype. In this study, we hypothesized that the effects of red beetroot powder (RP) and betanin pigment (BP) would differ depending on the enterotype. Fecal samples from 30 subjects were analyzed and categorized into three enterotypes: Phocaeicola, Prevotella, and Bifidobacterium. Feces were collected from one representative subject from each enterotype cluster for fermentation. Results showed that RP and BP affected microbiota composition and short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production differently across enterotypes. The Bifidobacterium cluster showed significantly reduced alpha diversity, with the direction of change in the gut microbiota composition being different from that of other subjects. Additionally, SCFAs significantly increased, with the highest increase in the Bifidobacterium cluster. In this cluster, metabolic pathways related to SCFAs (i.e., starch and sucrose metabolism and glycolysis/gluconeogenesis) were altered. Conversely, Prevotella-dominant feces exhibited fewer changes in SCFAs and a lower increase in Bifidobacterium abundance than the others. These findings highlight that RP and BP elicit enterotype-specific responses in the gut microbiota composition and SCFA production, emphasizing the importance of enterotypes in personalized nutrition.