Rutin-casein co-precipitates as potential delivery vehicles for flavonoid rutin

Preparation of zein-rutin supramolecular nanoparticles using pH-ultrasound-shifting: binding mechanism, functional properties, and in vitro release kinetics

The limited solubility of rutin necessitates the development of efficient delivery systems. This study developed zein-rutin supramolecular nanoparticles (Z-R-P-U) using a pH-ultrasound-shifting method, achieving high encapsulation efficiency (87.89 ± 1.28 %) and loading capacity (23.97 ± 0.56 %). Multispectral analysis and molecular docking results indicated that hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic interactions are the dominant supramolecular forces in the binding between zein and rutin. Z-R-P-U exhibited a uniform spherical structure with a particle size of approximately 150 nm, maintaining stability below 200 nm after 28 days of storage. Compared to free rutin, Z-R-P-U increased solubility by 9.2 times and significantly enhanced antioxidant activities, including DPPH scavenging capacity (10.26 %), ABTS+ scavenging capacity (12.23 %), and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (31.43 %). Additionally, bioaccessibility improved notably, and in vitro release followed first-order kinetics governed by Fickian diffusion. This method efficiently encapsulates polyphenols, offering novel strategies for their application in food and pharmaceutical industries.

Elucidating the interaction mechanism of rutin with β-casein and β-lactoglobulin: A comprehensive analysis using multi-spectroscopy, molecular docking, and molecular dynamic simulations

Polyphenol-protein interactions are crucial for food processing, nutrition, and functional properties. This study investigates the interaction between rutin and β-casein (β-CAS) or β-lactoglobulin (β-LG) using multispectral analysis, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Fluorescence spectroscopy reveals that rutin binds spontaneously (ΔG < 0) to β-CAS and β-LG, forming complexes with binding constants (Ka) at 298 K of 42.500 × 103 and 2.101 × 103 L·mol-1, respectively, and at 308 K of 5.814 × 103 and 4.350 × 103 L·mol-1. Multispectral analysis and microscopy reveal complex formation and changes in the proteins' secondary, crystalline, and microstructures. Molecular docking and MD simulations verify complex stability, showing heightened binding affinity between rutin and β-CAS. These results validate hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding as the main forces between rutin and the two proteins. These findings offer insights for using milk proteins as rutin carriers and support potential food industry application.

Spray-Dried Powders of Casein-Encapsulated Rutin Stabilized With Sugars for the Enhancement of Intestinal Drug Solubility

Numerous therapeutic potentials of rutin (RUT) including cardioprotective, neuroprotective, and antihypertension activities have attracted many studies to bring it into clinical use. RUT is phytochemically derived from plants such as apples and tea. It is poorly soluble and very sensible to acidic pH in the stomach environment which leads to conceded oral bioavailability. In contrast, RUT is better soluble in basic environment, thus, encapsulating RUT within enteric microparticles (RUT-MP) using casein (CAS) resolved such problems. The encapsulation by spray-drying employed sugars (lactose, sucrose, and maltodextrin) as bulking agents and for stabilization of the amorphous drug. The developed RUT-MP formulations were prepared in two groups i.e., lower and higher RUT concentrations. The solid states were studied by X-ray diffraction (XRD), differential thermal analysis (DTA) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Solubility tests were also carried out on the samples to examine the outcome of the engineered physical modification. The results showed that the RUT-MPs were spherical in morphology. The RUT was transformed into amorphous structure as suggested by the XRD and DTA results indicating that RUT was molecularly dispersed in the RUT-MP. There were no phase separations that occurred as confirmed by the DTA data. Solubility tests carried out on the RUT-MPs showed that the encapsulation with CAS in group with higher concentration of RUT prevented the drug against recovery of the crystallinity and phase separations. The solubility test revealed various substantial enhancements of RUT solubility of the RUT-MPs at pH 7.0. The highest enhancement of RUT solubility was 191,5-fold, with respect to pure RUT. The presence of sugars was beneficial as they improved the yield percentage and might have contributed to the prevention of nano-crystal aggregation which made them a determining aspect for the successful application of spray-dried encapsulation.

Encapsulation of polyphenols in protein-based nanoparticles: Preparation, properties, and applications

Polyphenols have a variety of physiological activities, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory properties. However, their applications are often limited because due to the instability of polyphenols. Encapsulation technologies can be employed to overcome these problems and increase the utilization of polyphenols. In this article, the utilization of protein-based nanoparticles for encapsulating polyphenols is reviewed due to their good biocompatibility, biodegradability, and functional attributes. Initially, the various kinds of animal and plant proteins available for forming protein nanoparticles are discussed, as well as the fabrication methods that can be used to assemble these nanoparticles. The molecular interaction mechanisms between proteins and polyphenols are then summarized. Applications of protein-based nanoparticles for encapsulating polyphenols are then discussed, including as nutrient delivery systems, in food packaging materials, and in the creation of functional foods. Finally, areas where further research is need on the development, characterization, and application of protein-based polyphenol-loaded nanoparticles are highlighted.

Encapsulation of rutin in protein nanoparticles by pH-driven method: impact of rutin solubility and mechanisms

BACKGROUND

The use of rutin in the food industry is limited by its poor solubility. Encapsulation can be used as an effective way to improve polyphenol solubility. Proteins with high safety, biocompatibility and multiple binding sites are known as the most promising encapsulating carriers. Therefore, the improvement of rutin solubility by pH-driven encapsulation of rutin in soy protein isolate (SPI) nanoparticles, as well as the form of rutin after encapsulation and rutin-protein binding index were investigated.

RESULTS

SPI had a high encapsulation efficiency (87.5%) and loading amount (10.6%) for rutin. When the mass ratio of protein to rutin was 5:1, the highest concentration of rutin in solution was 3.27 g L-1 , which was a 51.57-fold increase compared to the original rutin. At this situation, rutin transformed from crystalline to amorphous form. During the formation of nanoparticles, SPI was in a dynamic change of unfolding and refolding. Rutin deprotonated in alkaline conditions increasing its solubility and bound to protein to form nanoparticles during the process of returning to neutral. Hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding promoted the formation of the nanoparticles and there were at least 1-2 binding sites between rutin and each SPI molecule.

CONCLUSION

The results suggested that encapsulation of rutin in protein nanoparticles can effectively increase the solubility of rutin. This study may provide important information for the effective utilization of polyphenol functional foods. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Regulation Mechanism of Phenolic Hydroxyl Number on Self-Assembly and Interaction between Edible Dock Protein and Hydrophobic Flavonoids

In this study, galangin (Gal), kaempferol (Kae), quercetin (Que), and myricetin (Myr) were chosen as the representative flavonoids with different phenolic hydroxyl numbers in the B-ring. The edible dock protein (EDP) was chosen as the new plant protein. Based on this, the regulation mechanism of the phenolic hydroxyl number on the self-assembly behavior and molecular interaction between EDP and flavonoid components were investigated. Results indicated that the loading capacity order of flavonoids within the EDP nanomicelles was Myr (10.92%) > Que (9.56%) > Kae (6.63%) > Gal (5.55%). Moreover, this order was consistent with the order of the hydroxyl number in the flavonoid's B ring: Myr (3) > Que (2) > Kae (1) > Gal (0). The micro morphology exhibited that four flavonoid-EDP nanomicelles had a core-shell structure. In the meantime, the EDP encapsulation remarkably improved the flavonoids' water solubility, storage stability, and sustained release characteristics. During the interaction of EDP and flavonoids, the noncovalent interactions including van der Waals forces, hydrophobic interaction, and hydrogen bonding were the main binding forces. All of the results demonstrated that the hydroxyl number of bioactive compounds is a critical factor for developing a delivery system with high loading ability and stability.

Rutin: Family Farming Products' Extraction Sources, Industrial Applications and Current Trends in Biological Activity Protection

In vitro and in vivo studies have demonstrated the bioactivity of rutin, a dietary flavonol naturally found in several plant species. Despite widespread knowledge of its numerous health benefits, such as anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective and cardiovascular effects, industrial use of rutin is still limited due to its low solubility in aqueous media, the characteristic bitter and astringent taste of phenolic compounds and its susceptibility to degradation during processing. To expand its applications and preserve its biological activity, novel encapsulation systems have been developed. This review presents updated research on the extraction sources and methodologies of rutin from fruit and vegetable products commonly found in a regular diet and grown using family farming approaches. Additionally, this review covers quantitative analysis techniques, encapsulation methods utilizing nanoparticles, colloidal and heterodisperse systems, as well as industrial applications of rutin.

Effect of a 12-Week Polyphenol Rutin Intervention on Markers of Pancreatic β-Cell Function and Gut Microbiota in Adults with Overweight without Diabetes

Supplementation with prebiotic polyphenol rutin is a potential dietary therapy for type 2 diabetes prevention in adults with obesity, based on previous glycaemic improvement in transgenic mouse models. Gut microbiota are hypothesised to underpin these effects. We investigated the effect of rutin supplementation on pancreatic β-cell function measured as C-peptide/glucose ratio, and 16S rRNA gene-based gut microbiota profiles, in a cohort of individuals with overweight plus normoglycaemia or prediabetes. Eighty-seven participants were enrolled, aged 18-65 years with BMI of 23-35 kg/m2. This was a 12-week double-blind randomised controlled trial (RCT), with 3 treatments comprising (i) placebo control, (ii) 500 mg/day encapsulated rutin, and (iii) 500 mg/day rutin-supplemented yoghurt. A 2-h oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) was performed at baseline and at the end of the trial, with faecal samples also collected. Compliance with treatment was high (~90%), but rutin in both capsule and dietary format did not alter pancreatic β-cell response to OGTT over 12 weeks. Gut bacterial community composition also did not significantly change, with Firmicutes dominating irrespective of treatment. Fasting plasma glucose negatively correlated with the abundance of the butyrate producer Roseburia inulinivorans, known for its anti-inflammatory capacity. This is the first RCT to investigate postprandial pancreatic β-cell function in response to rutin supplementation.

Assessment of Various Food Proteins as Structural Materials for Delivery of Hydrophobic Polyphenols Using a Novel Co-Precipitation Method

In this study, sodium caseinate (NaCas), soy protein isolate (SPI), and whey protein isolate (WPI) were used as structural materials for the delivery of rutin, naringenin, curcumin, hesperidin, and catechin. For each polyphenol, the protein solution was brought to alkaline pH, and then the polyphenol and trehalose (as a cryo-protectant) were added. The mixtures were later acidified, and the co-precipitated products were lyophilized. Regardless of the type of protein used, the co-precipitation method exhibited relatively high entrapment efficiency and loading capacity for all five polyphenols. Several structural changes were seen in the scanning electron micrographs of all polyphenol-protein co-precipitates. This included a significant decrease in the crystallinity of the polyphenols, which was confirmed by X-ray diffraction analysis, where amorphous structures of rutin, naringenin, curcumin, hesperidin, and catechin were revealed after the treatment. Both the dispersibility and solubility of the lyophilized powders in water were improved dramatically (in some cases, >10-fold) after the treatment, with further improvements observed in these properties for the powders containing trehalose. Depending on the chemical structure and hydrophobicity of the tested polyphenols, there were differences observed in the degree and extent of the effect of the protein on different properties of the polyphenols. Overall, the findings of this study demonstrated that NaCas, WPI, and SPI can be used for the development of an efficient delivery system for hydrophobic polyphenols, which in turn can be incorporated into various functional foods or used as supplements in the nutraceutical industry.

Delivery of Catechins from Green Tea Waste in Single- and Double-Layer Liposomes via Their Incorporation into a Functional Green Kiwifruit Juice

Globally, about one million tonnes of tea products, which contain high concentrations of catechins and their derivatives, are wasted annually. Therefore, green tea waste catechins (GTWCs) are worth extracting, processing, protection, and delivery to the human body. In this study, GTWCs were extracted using a green method and then encapsulated in both single- (SLLs) and double-layer liposomes (DLLs). The encapsulated extracts were subsequently incorporated into a fresh green kiwifruit juice. SLLs and DLLs containing GTWCs had a size of about 180 and 430 nm with a zeta potential of -35 and +25 mV, respectively. Electron microscopy illustrated the separation of the SLLs and fibre in kiwifruit juice and attraction of the DLLs to this fibre. Liposomal GTWCs were effectively maintained in the kiwifruit juice during the 28 days of storage (4 °C), demonstrating the effectiveness of this delivery system for high-value bioactives (i.e., catechins) from such a by-product (i.e., green tea waste).

Potential uses of milk proteins as encapsulation walls for bioactive compounds: A review

Milk proteins have received much awareness due to their bioactivity. However, their encapsulation functions have not attracted enough attention. Milk proteins as encapsulation walls can increase the bioavailability of bioactive compounds. As the benefits of bioactive compounds are critically determined by bioavailability, the effect of interactions between milk proteins and active substances is a critical topic. In the present review, we summarize the effects of milk proteins as encapsulation walls on the bioavailability of active substances with a special focus. The methods and mechanisms of interactions between milk proteins and active substances are also discussed. The evidence collected in the present review suggests that when active substances are encapsulated by milk proteins, the bioavailability of active substances can be significantly affected. This review also provides valuable guidelines for the use of milk protein-based microcarriers.

The Effect of pH and Sodium Caseinate on the Aqueous Solubility, Stability, and Crystallinity of Rutin towards Concentrated Colloidally Stable Particles for the Incorporation into Functional Foods

Poor water solubility and low bioavailability of hydrophobic flavonoids such as rutin remain as substantial challenges to their oral delivery via functional foods. In this study, the effect of pH and the addition of a protein (sodium caseinate; NaCas) on the aqueous solubility and stability of rutin was studied, from which an efficient delivery system for the incorporation of rutin into functional food products was developed. The aqueous solubility, chemical stability, crystallinity, and morphology of rutin (0.1–5% w/v) under various pH (1–11) and protein concentrations (0.2–8% w/v) were studied. To manufacture the concentrated colloidally stable rutin–NaCas particles, rutin was dissolved and deprotonated in a NaCas solution at alkaline pH before its subsequent neutralisation at pH 7. The excess water was removed using ultrafiltration to improve the loading capacity. Rutin showed the highest solubility at pH 11, while the addition of NaCas resulted in the improvement of both solubility and chemical stability. Critically, to achieve particles with colloidal stability, the NaCas:rutin ratio (w/w) had to be greater than 2.5 and 40 respectively for the lowest (0.2% w/v) and highest (4 to 8% w/v) concentrations of NaCas. The rutin–NaCas particles in the concentrated formulations were physically stable, with a size in the range of 185 to 230 nm and zeta potential of −36.8 to −38.1 mV, depending on the NaCas:rutin ratio. Encapsulation efficiency and loading capacity of rutin in different systems were 76% to 83% and 2% to 22%, respectively. The concentrated formulation containing 5% w/v NaCas and 2% w/v rutin was chosen as the most efficient delivery system due to the ideal protein:flavonoid ratio (2.5:1), which resulted in the highest loading capacity (22%). Taken together, the findings show that the delivery system developed in this study can be a promising method for the incorporation of a high concentration of hydrophobic flavonoids such as rutin into functional foods.

Carriers Based on Zein-Dextran Sulfate Sodium Binary Complex for the Sustained Delivery of Quercetin

Herein, a self-assembly formulation of Zein and dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) binary complex has been developed for the quercetin (Que) delivery. The prepared particles display a smooth sphere in the range of 180 ~ 250 nm. The addition of DSS shields the Trp residues of Zein that were located on the hydrophilic exterior and in-turn reduces the surface hydrophobicity of the nanoparticles. The presence of DSS, indeed, increases the encapsulation efficiency of Que from the initial 45.9 in the Zein to 72.6% in the Zein/DSS binary complex. A significant reduction of Que diffusion in the simulated intestinal conditions has been observed with the addition of DSS on the nanoparticles, which also improves Que bioavailability. The release mechanism of Que-loaded Zein/DSS composites is in accordance with the Higuchi model (Q = 0.0913t^0.5+0.1652, R² = 0.953). Overall, nanoparticles based on Zein-DSS complexes stand out as an attractive carrier system of quercetin and the outcome could be extended to several bioactive compounds.

Nanoformulations to Enhance the Bioavailability and Physiological Functions of Polyphenols

Polyphenols are micronutrients that are widely present in human daily diets. Numerous studies have demonstrated their potential as antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents, and for cancer prevention, heart protection and the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. However, due to their vulnerability to environmental conditions and low bioavailability, their application in the food and medical fields is greatly limited. Nanoformulations, as excellent drug delivery systems, can overcome these limitations and maximize the pharmacological effects of polyphenols. In this review, we summarize the biological activities of polyphenols, together with systems for their delivery, including phospholipid complexes, lipid-based nanoparticles, protein-based nanoparticles, niosomes, polymers, micelles, emulsions and metal nanoparticles. The application of polyphenol nanoparticles in food and medicine is also discussed. Although loading into nanoparticles solves the main limitation to application of polyphenolic compounds, there are some concerns about their toxicological safety after entry into the human body. It is therefore necessary to conduct toxicity studies and residue analysis on the carrier.