Freeze-thaw stability and rheological properties of high internal phase emulsions stabilized by phosphorylated perilla protein isolate: Effect of tea saponin concentration

Electrostatic induced Rana chensinensis ovum protein isolates/xanthan gum complex particles stabilized HIPPE for β-carotene loading and dysphagia

Rana chensinensis ovum protein isolates and xanthan gum complex particles were constructed through electrostatic induced aggregation and their ability as an emulsifier for high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPE) was explored. The complex particles showed a clear aggregated structure as the xanthan gum content increased. It also impacted the particle size of the HIPPE droplets, which decreased to 35 μm with a zeta potential of -41.6 ± 1.23 mV. Rheological tests showed that the oscillatory frequency G' increased with increasing xanthan gum. It was higher than G" and appeared to be shear-thinning. In addition, the prepared HIPPE showed impressive stability under freeze-thaw reversible, centrifugal, and heating conditions. The HIPPE also showed notable β-carotene delivery potential with an encapsulation rate of achieved 90.9 %, while improving stability and bioaccessibility. Meanwhile, The HIPPE met the dietary criteria of International Dysphagia Diet Standardization Initiative (IDDSI) Class 4 viscous/extremely dense foods.

Biopolymer-based emulsion gels as fat replacers: A review of their design, fabrication, and applications

Excessive intake of fat has been linked to a variety of diet-related chronic diseases, such as diabetes, obesity, cardiovascular disease, and cerebrovascular disease. At the same time, fat provides calories and nutrients to the human body, as well as impacting the appearance, taste, texture, and palatability of foods. Consequently, it is not feasible to simply remove fats from food, without adversely affecting their nutritional, functional, and sensory properties. Emulsion gels are colloidal viscoelastic materials that can be used to mimic the appearance, taste, texture, and other properties of fats, while still providing valuable fat-soluble nutrients, like vitamins and nutraceuticals. In this article, we review the design and preparation of emulsion gels based on different food-grade biopolymers, including proteins, polysaccharides, and their complexes. In addition, we discuss how structural design principles can be used to create emulsion gels that exhibit a diverse range of different properties. The potential applications of emulsion gels as fat replacers in different kinds of foods are briefly summarized. When properly designed, emulsion gels can convert healthy plant-based liquid oils into semi-solid plastic fats that can mimic many of the rheological characteristics of animal fats. In conclusion, emulsion gels provide an effective approach for designing healthier and more nutritious low-fat foods.

Elucidation of the relationship between milk protein-stevioside interactions and interfacial layer properties based on multi-spectroscopy and interfacial rheology

The intricate interactions between stevioside (STE) and milk protein (mixtures of whey protein isolate and sodium caseinate, WPI/SC) as well as interfacial stabilization mechanisms were investigated. At the molecular scale, it was observed that the incorporation of the steviol hydrophobic skeleton enhanced the surface hydrophobicity of WPI/SC (from 1560.73 to 2175.63), favoring the reduction of the energy barrier for adsorption. At the mesoscopic scale, the analysis of adsorption kinetics and interfacial dilatational rheological response revealed that STE and WPI/SC had a synergistic effect on the attenuation of oil-water interfacial tension, with the lowest value of interfacial tension of 9.46 mN/m. Meanwhile, at low concentrations of STE, the WPI/SC-STE complexes unfolded and self-assembled at the interface to form a spring-like interfacial layer that relaxed in response to external deformation. In contrast, at high concentrations of STE, it gradually replaced WPI/SC-STE complexes at the interface and destabilized the interfacial layer.

Investigation of Emulsifying Properties and Stability of Fish Gelatin and Tea Saponin Complex Emulsion System

In this study, environmental stability, rheological properties, and structural characterization of co-stabilized emulsions using fish gelatin (FG) and tea saponin (TS) were investigated. The results demonstrated that the addition of TS significantly enhanced the emulsifying properties of FG, and the FG-TS0.1% emulsion had the smallest particle size. TS and FG co-stabilized emulsions provided resistance to salt and high temperatures. Optical microscopy and CLSM showed that the addition of TS made FG more effectively adsorb at the oil-water interface, leading to the formation of more uniform oil droplet sizes. Additionally, the addition of TS increased the viscosity of FG emulsions, which reduced emulsion flocculation. Results of intrinsic fluorescence, FTIR, and surface hydrophobicity revealed that the addition of TS altered the secondary structure of FG, enhancing surface hydrophobicity and improving emulsification. In conclusion, the moderate addition of TS significantly enhanced the emulsification and rheological properties of FG, suggesting new potential applications for FG in various industries.

Modification of Inca peanut albumin-polyphenol conjugates by chitosan through laccase catalysis: Structural, interfacial, and functional properties

As a green method, enzyme crosslinking can catalyze chitosan (CS) to improve further the structural, interfacial, and functional properties of Inca peanut albumin (IPA)-polyphenols. However, the structural impact of laccase-catalyzed CS on different IPA-polyphenol conjugates has not been reported. Results revealed that enzymatic cross-linking of IPA-gallic acid (GA) and IPA- (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) with CS resulted in a decrease in α-helices, an increase in β-helices, and a more ordered structure. The contact angles of IPA-GA-CS and IPA-EGCG-CS decreased from 99.4° and 101.2° to 89.9° and 95.4°, respectively, indicating reduced hydrophobicity and enhanced interfacial adsorption. Furthermore, using copolymers as emulsifiers significantly improved the emulsification and antioxidant properties of high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPEs). In particular, the apparent viscosity and viscoelasticity of HIPEs constructed with IPA-GA-CS notably improved, and the EGCG-induced copolymers exhibited superior lipid antioxidation. The method of laccase-mediated crosslinking for the preparation of protein-polyphenol-polysaccharide polymers enhances the functional properties and anti-pH sensitivity of IPA, representing a novel protein modification strategy.

Oleanolic acid nanoparticles-stabilized W/O Pickering emulsions: Fabrication, characterization, and delivery application

Water-in-oil (W/O) Pickering emulsions have wide applications in the food industries. However, the existing W/O Pickering particles have disadvantages such as lack of bioactivity and poor stability. In this study, naturally occurring bioactive oleanolic acid (OA) was used as a novel emulsifier for W/O emulsions. Results revealed that rod-like OA could formulate into spherical nanoparticles by self-assembly, and then be anchored onto the oil-water interface to stabilize the emulsions. Besides, both OA concentration and internal water fraction (φ) had significant effect on the properties of emulsions. Furthermore, the resulted emulsions exhibited potential application as carriers for epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), which significantly improved its UV and thermal stability. Meanwhile, it could effectively protect EGCG from gastric digestion, and controlled release in the intestine. This work demonstrated the successful application of OA as a stabilizer for W/O emulsions, and provided valuable insight into its potential as delivery system for hydrophilic instable compounds.

Synergistic effect of hydrophilic polyglycerol fatty acid esters and protein on the stability of interfacial membrane in low-fat aerated emulsions with different homogenization conditions

This study investigates the impact of various chain lengths of hydrophilic polyglycerol fatty acid esters (HPGEs), namely SWA-10D, M-7D and M-10D on protein interactions and their influence on the surface morphology and interfacial properties of low-fat aerated emulsions under different pressures conditions. M-7D and M-10D samples exhibited larger particle sizes, higher ζ-potential and rougher surface compared to SWA-10D sample at 1 % concentration of HPGEs. Consequently, M-7D and M-10D samples demonstrated lower values of G', G'', and higher values tan δ at the oil-water interface as pressure increased, thereby promoting the formation of less viscoelastic structures. M-7D sample, characterized by lower content of α-helix structures, resulted in an observable redshift in the NH and CO groups of the protein. Molecular docking analysis affirmed that M-7D sample exhibited a lower absolute binding energy value, indicating stronger interaction with the protein compared to other samples, ultimately contributing to the unstable interfacial membrane formed.

Influence of varying oil phase volume fractions on the characteristics of flaxseed-derived diglyceride-based Pickering emulsions stabilized by modified soy protein isolate

This research aimed to create Pickering emulsions using modified soy protein isolate (SPI) as a stabilizer and flaxseed-derived diglyceride (DAG) as an oil phase. The SPI was modified through a process involving both heating and ultrasound treatment. The result indicated that the droplet size of emulsions increased with the increase in oil content (p < 0.05). For instance, the largest droplet size (23 µm) was observed at an oil-to-SPI dispersion ratio of 4:1 ratio (φ = 80), whereas the smallest droplet size (6.39 µm) was noticed at the 1:4 ratio. During the 7-day storage period, the emulsions with a 4:1 ratio (φ = 80) showed the lowest droplet size increase (from 23 µm to 25.58 µm). In contrast, the emulsions with a 1:1 ratio displayed the highest increase (from 19.39 µm to 74.29 µm). Creaming index results revealed that emulsions with a 4:1 ratio (φ = 80) showed no signs of creaming and phase separation than all other treatments (p < 0.05). Backscattering fluctuations (ΔBS) and turbiscan stability index (TSI) showed that emulsions with 4:1, 2:1, and 1:1 oil-to-SPI dispersion ratios had consistent ΔBS curves with higher and TSI curves with lower values. Optical microscopy, confocal laser scanning, and cryo-scanning electron microscopy revealed that emulsions with oil-to-SPI dispersion ratios of 4:1 and 2:1 had well-organized structures with no visible coalescence. Macromorphological and microrheological investigations demonstrated that emulsions with 80% oil content had the highest viscosity, both moduli, elasticity index, macroscopic viscosity index, and the lowest fluidity index and solid-liquid balance values. Moreover, these emulsions were more resistant to centrifugation and storage environments. In conclusion, the study determined that flaxseed-derived DAG-based high internal phase Pickering emulsions (φ = 80) had superior stability, improved viscoelasticity, and better rheological properties.

Soy protein isolate/carboxymethyl cellulose sodium complexes system stabilized high internal phase Pickering emulsions: Stabilization mechanism based on noncovalent interaction

The interactions between carboxymethyl cellulose sodium and proteins can regulate the interfacial and rheological properties of HIPEs, which plays a leading role in the stabilities of HIPEs. This article prepared various ratios of soluble soy protein isolate/carboxymethyl cellulose sodium (SPI/CMC) complexes in different proportions and examined the impact of various ratios of complexes on the structure and interface properties of complexes systems. Additionally, it explored the co-emulsification mechanism of HIPEs using SPI and CMC. At appropriate ratios of SPI/CMC, SPI and CMC mainly combine through non covalent binding and form complexes with smaller particle sizes and stronger electrostatic repulsion. The interfacial properties indicated that adding appropriate CMC increased the pliability and reduced the interfacial tension, while also enhancing the wettability of SPI/CMC complexes. At the ratio of 2:1, the SPI/CMC complexes-stabilized HIPPEs exhibited smaller oil droplets size, tighter droplet packing, and thicker interfacial film through the bridging of droplets and the generation of stronger gel-like network structures to prevent the coalescence/flocculation of droplets. These results suggested that the appropriate ratios of SPI/CMC can improve the physical stability of HIPEs by changing the structure and interface characteristics of the SPI/CMC complexes. This work provided theoretical support for stable HIPEs formed with protein-polysaccharide complexes.

Stabilization of oil-in-water high internal phase emulsions with octenyl succinic acid starch and beeswax oleogel

High internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) based on beeswax (BW) oleogels and octenyl succinic acid starch (OSA starch) were prepared by a facile one-step method. Effects of the oleogelation of internal phase on the formation, stability and functionality of the HIPEs were investigated. OSA starch absorbed at the interface allowed high surface charge (|ζ| > 25 mV) of the droplets, and small droplet size (d ≈ 5 m). Microstructural observation suggested that the HIPEs were of O/W type with droplets packed tightly. With the increase in BW content (0-4 %), the particle size (4-7 μm) and ζ-potential (-25 ~ -30 mV) of the HIPEs were first decreased and then increased. Stability analysis revealed that the addition of BW effectively improved emulsion stability against centrifugation, freeze-thawing, changes in pH and ionic strength, and the HIPE with 2 % BW presented the best stability. Rheological tests indicated that the HIPEs with higher content of BW exhibited higher storage modulus, solid-like properties, and shear thinning behaviors. Creep-recovery results implied that the oleogelation enhanced the structure of HIPEs and improved the deformation resistance of the systems. When subjected to light and heat, oleogel-in-water HIPEs showed advantages in protecting β-carotene from degradation, and β-carotene in the HIPEs with 2 % BW had the lowest degradation rate. These findings suggested that gelation of oil phase could improve the stability of HIPEs and the encapsulation capability, which would be meaningful for the development of novel healthy food.

An overview of tea saponin as a surfactant in food applications

The residue of Camellia seeds after oil extraction contains many bioactive ingredients, including tea saponin. Tea saponin has many pharmacological effects and is an excellent nonionic surfactant. The development of natural surfactants has become a hot topic in food research. This review gathers the applications of tea saponin as a surfactant in food. It focuses on the application of tea saponin in emulsions, delivery systems, extraction and fermentation, as well as the challenges and development prospects in food applications. Tea saponin shows great potential as a surfactant in food applications, which can replace some synthetic surfactants. The full utilization of tea saponin improves the comprehensive utilization value of Camellia seed residue, contributes to the sustainable development of Camellia industry and avoids resource waste.

Mechanism of synergistic stabilization of emulsions by amorphous taro starch and protein and emulsion stability

Amorphous taro starch (TS)/whey protein isolate (WPI) mixtures were prepared using pasting treatment. The TS/WPI mixtures and their stabilized emulsions were characterized to determine the emulsion stability and the mechanism of synergistic stabilization of emulsions. As WPI content increased from 0% to 13%, the paste final viscosity and retrogradation ratio of the TS/WPI mixture gradually decreased from 3683 cP to 2532 cP and from 80.65% to 30.51%, respectively. As the WPI content increased from 0% to 10%, the emulsion droplet size decreased gradually from 96.81 μm to 10.32 μm, and the storage modulus G' and stabilities of freeze-thaw, centrifugal, and storage increased gradually. Confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed that WPI and TS were mainly distributed at the oil-water interface and droplet interstice, respectively. Thermal treatment, pH, and ionic strength had little influence on the appearance but had different influences on the droplet size and G', and the rates of droplet size and G' increase under storage varied with different environmental factors.

High Internal Phase Emulsions Stabilized by Pea Protein Isolate Modified by Ultrasound Combined with pH-Shifting: Micromorphology, Rheology, and Physical Stability

In this study, the interfacial behavior of high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs), stabilized by ultrasound combined with pH-shifting modified pea protein isolate (MPPI), was investigated, and its emulsification process and stabilization mechanism were discussed. The effects of MPPI concentration on the micromorphology, droplet size, rheology, and stability of HIPEs were investigated. As the MPPI concentration increased, the appearance of HIPEs gradually changed from a relatively fluid state to a plastic solid-like state with detailed texture. There occurred a gradual decrease in droplet size, the cohering of an orderly and tight arrangement, in addition to the formation of a bilayer elastic interface layer. The macro- and microrheological assessments confirmed that the apparent viscosity, storage modulus, elasticity index, and macroscopic viscosity index increased gradually. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that 5 wt% MPPI-stabilized HIPEs had the potential to be used as 3D printing inks. Stability evaluation showed that the TURBISCAN stability index decreased and centrifugal stability increased. The appearance and microstructure remained highly stable after heating at 80 °C for 30 min and storage at 4 ℃ for 90 days. These findings confirm that MPPI improves the rheological behavior and stability of HIPEs by modulating the interfacial adsorption and network structure.

High internal phase emulsion gels stabilized by phosphorylated perilla protein isolate for protecting hydrophobic nutrients: Adjusting emulsion performance by incorporating chitosan-protocatechuic acid conjugate

The delivery vehicles based on protein-polysaccharide-polyphenol are promising methods to encapsulate bioactive components with the aim of improving their solubility and bioavailability. In this study, chitosan-protocatechuic acid (CSPA) conjugate interacted with phosphorylated perilla protein isolate (LZPI) to engineer a composite antioxidant interfacial architecture to delay lipid oxidation and regulate the stability and digestion profiles of β-carotene loaded in high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs). Compared to LZPI, the LZPI-CSPA complexes formed by hydrogen bond and electrostatic interaction showed improved wettability and reduced interfacial tension, which facilitated their adsorption at the interface. Furthermore, the addition of CSPA conjugate promoted the formation of interconnected network structure of LZPI-stabilized HIPEs, thereby endowing them with excellent viscoelasticity and storage stability. Moreover, the denser interfacial film based on LZPI-CSPA complexes effectively decreased the contents of lipid hydroperoxide and malondialdehyde in HIPEs, thus improving their oxidation stability. The encapsulation of β-carotene by LZPI-CSPA complex-stabilized HIPEs could further enhance its retention rate against different environmental stresses. After in vitro simulated digestion, the bioaccessibility of β-carotene also improved, reaching the highest value in HIPEs containing 1.5 % CSPA conjugate. These findings will give a reference for the fabrication of delivery vehicles to enhance the stability and bioaccessibility of bioactive components.

Effect of chitosan-protocatechuic acid conjugate on stability and encapsulation capacity of polysaccharide-based high internal phase emulsion

The aim of this work was to fabricate chitosan-protocatechuic acid (CSPA) conjugates by free radical grafting method and use them as novel emulsifiers to inhibit lipid oxidation and delay the photodegradation rate of curcumin in polysaccharide-based high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs). Results of UV-vis, FT-IR and ¹H NMR spectra demonstrated that PA had been successfully bonded to chitosan (CS) through ester and amino linkages. CSPA conjugates (especially those with the ratio of CS to PA of 1:0.75) showed significantly increased water solubility and antioxidant activity than CS monomer. Furthermore, compared with sole OSA starch (OSAS), the electrostatic combination of CS and CSPA conjugate with OSAS could further reduce the interfacial tension, which was conducive to their adsorption at the oil-water interface. The introduction of CS and CSPA conjugate also increased the viscosity of aqueous phase and promoted the formation of gel-like percolating network structure, thereby effectively preventing droplets coalescence and endowing HIPEs with ideal viscoelasticity. More importantly, the contents of lipid hydroperoxide (24.09 μmol/g oil) and malondialdehyde (166.71 nmol/g oil) in HIPEs prepared by OSAS-CS-CSPA complexes were lower than those stabilized by OSAS, OSAS-CS and OSAS-CSPA complexes during accelerated storage. In addition, HIPEs prepared by OSAS-CS-CSPA complexes showed stronger protection capacity on curcumin against ultraviolet irradiation and natural light degradation. This study will provide useful information and technical reference for the fabrication of antioxidant polysaccharide-based HIPEs delivery vehicles.