The role of aromatic similarity in food and beverage pairing

Exploring food and beverage pairing from a cross-cultural projective mapping

Culture is a well-known driver of food choices, and therefore, it could also impact food pairing preferences. Food pairing has been studied from different approaches; however, little cross-cultural research has been done. This work explored food and beverage pairing using projective mapping (PM) to create maps of food-beverage combinations. Four countries (Mexico, Argentina, France, and Norway), thirty foods, and six beverages were selected. PM was carried out through an online study in each country. Participants were asked to map foods together with beverages following the instruction that foods and beverages closer together represented a good combination. The coordinates of each product were analyzed through Multiple Factorial Analyses (MFA) by countries. The first four factors of each MFA were used to perform RV coefficients to test similarities in food-beverage pairings between the countries. Finally, a k-means clustering was performed on the beverage coordinates of each MFA. PM provided maps representing food and beverage pairings for each country in which the proximity between food-beverages represented a good combination according to consumers. RV coefficients between countries were low, showing that food-beverage pairings were not similar across countries, evidencing the cultural effect in food-drink combinations. Results from the k-means clustering showed some similarities and differences between countries. In general, the food-beverage pairing was effectively explored with PM, from which several differences and similarities were found within cultures.

Exploring cheese and red wine pairing by an in vitro simulation of tasting

The cheese wine pairing is a beloved combination subject to a certain subjectivity due to sensorial, psychological, chemical, and cultural factors. This work represents a first attempt to explore the in vitro interactions between cheese, wine, and saliva to objectively measure the pairing. Two experimental red wines obtained from the same grape cultivar and four different cheeses were studied for their composition. Binding reactions between wine and cheese were carried out in three simulated tasting trials and, after precipitation, the wine phenolic content, Saliva Precipitation Index (SPI), and total proteins were evaluated. The optimal pairing (OP) was calculated considering the decrease in salivary and cheese proteins by wine, defined as the cleansing effect; the decrease in astringency due to the cheese, measured by the SPI, and the coating fat which would remain in mouth after eating a piece of cheese. Based on obtained results, the semi-hard cheese was identified as the best pairing option for the two experimental red wines. The differences in the phenolic content between the two wines were instead not enough to show a significant influence on the OP. The in vitro cheese wine pairing can contribute to understanding of wine tasting but it is only a part of the puzzle. However, this first contribution paves the way for additional studies on the molecular and chemical interactions involved in aroma and textural perception in simulated trials.

Consumer's perception of food pairing products with usual, novel and unusual flavour combinations: A segmentation approach

In saturated markets, companies are continually launching new products. Food innovations particularly play a decisive role in this case. One new concept is food pairing, which signifies that the more aromatic compounds two foods have in common, the better they taste together. Food pairing offers an opportunity to develop innovative foods. However, some consumers are risk-averse or exhibit food neophobia. Studies on food neophobia indicate that innovative foods could face rejection. The factor that represents a marketing barrier is not only the sensory rejection of the products when tasting them but also the refusal to even try such innovative products. Therefore, the idea of whether consumers are generally open to food pairing is important to examine. Nonetheless, research into this issue is lacking thus far. The subject of how consumers judge usual, novel, and unusual pairing principles was investigated in this study. The topic of whether a target group for food pairing products exists and characterized the target group was also analysed. To achieve the objective of the study, an online survey of German consumers (n = 1,064) was conducted; these consumers judged the five flavour combinations of each category (usual, novel, unusual). The results revealed a four-cluster solution, with one-third of the sample expressing an openness to food pairing. The whole sample judged the usual combinations as suitable; by contrast, the novel and unusual combinations were deemed to be mainly appropriate for the food pairing cluster. The proposed measurement methodology for testing the openness of food pairing, which distinguishes between usual, novel, and unusual pairings, has demonstrated its usefulness. Those consumers who are open to food pairing have a high level of food involvement and a low degree of food neophobia. Furthermore, they show the highest organic food purchase frequency.

Tea pairings: Impact of aromatic congruence on acceptance and sweetness perception

Food pairing is a relevant tool for the food industry and for culinary professionals to develop successful flavor combinations and memorable experiences, but it could also be useful for encouraging consumers to adhere to a healthier diet. The general purpose of this study was to further investigate the perception of teas and butter cookies with and without aromatic congruence, deepening in sweetness perception. The experimental included: 1) a projective mapping test (30 semi-trained panelists) to group tea samples and choose representatives of each aromatic group; 2) the determination of the main volatile organic compounds using Solid Phase Micro Extraction-Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (SPME-GC-MS) to prove the aromatic congruence of the designed tea-cookie pairings; 3) a consumer study (n = 89) to assess liking, sweetness perception, of the single samples and pairings, and the pairing principles of the congruent and non-congruent parings. Results of the projective mapping showed that the tea samples could be grouped into 3 main categories by their herbal, fruity-sweet, and brown-sweet notes, results also supported by the GCMS data. Harmony was positively correlated to liking, and Balance and Similarity seemed to be related to aromatic "congruence", although all pairings were similarly liked. Sugar content was similar in all the cookie samples and pairings, but sweetness perception was significantly influenced by the aroma of the samples, being the samples and pairings made with spearmint the least sweet ones. Pairing a tea with sweet aromas with the spearmint cookie, independently of the kind of sweet aromatics (e.g.: coconut, almond, vanilla, fruity, tropical), seemed to slightly increase sweetness perception, although significant differences were not detected with other spearmint cookie pairings. Findings of the present research sum knowledge to the food pairing area, but further research is needed in recommending appropriate methodologies for pairing assessment, as well as the potential uses of driven pairings in specific food cultures.

Sparkling Cider Paired with Italian Cheese: Sensory Analysis and Consumer Assessment

Cider is a beverage belonging to the tradition of many European rural areas. Pairing beverages and cheeses, even if it is part of an ancient tradition, is gaining more and more interest from the consumer. For this reason, in this research, we wanted to conduct a preliminary study on the combination of cider and cheese. In particular, six Italian sparkling ciders were selected, obtained through the Charmat and Champenoise method, and four types of Italian cheeses, from the Veneto region: Casatella Trevigiana, Fienil, Morlacco and Ubriaco, with very different sensory characteristics. The cider-cheese pairing test, conducted by a panel of experts, revealed how some cider parameters are reduced in intensity, such as astringency, while others are enhanced, such as fruitiness and persistence taste aroma. The hedonic test, conducted on the matching by 90 consumers, promoted some combinations while others were rejected. The sensory parameters associated with liking were fruity and taste aroma persistence, particularly expressed in some cider-cheese pairings.

Crossmodal Harmony: Looking for the Meaning of Harmony Beyond Hearing

The notion of harmony was first developed in the context of metaphysics before being applied to the domain of music. However, in recent centuries, the term has often been used to describe especially pleasing combinations of colors by those working in the visual arts too. Similarly, the harmonization of flavors is nowadays often invoked as one of the guiding principles underpinning the deliberate pairing of food and drink. However, beyond the various uses of the term to describe and construct pleasurable unisensory perceptual experiences, it has also been suggested that music and painting may be combined harmoniously (e.g., see the literature on "color music"). Furthermore, those working in the area of "sonic seasoning" sometimes describe certain sonic compositions as harmonizing crossmodally with specific flavor sensations. In this review, we take a critical look at the putative meaning(s) of the term "harmony" when used in a crossmodal, or multisensory, context. Furthermore, we address the question of whether the term's use outside of a strictly unimodal auditory context should be considered literally or merely metaphorically (i.e., as a shorthand to describe those combinations of sensory stimuli that, for whatever reason, appear to go well together, and hence which can be processed especially fluently).

Challenges of pairing chocolates and nuts: Perceptions, interactions and dynamics of contrasting chocolates with nuts

Chocolates paired with nuts are highly marketed products, however, there is a lack of scientific research and limited understanding of consumer sentiment towards the combination of these food products. The main objective of this research was to determine the consumers' response towards pairing five different chocolates (dark origin, milk, Gold, white fruity, and white vanilla) and three different nuts (hazelnut, almond, and pistachio) for the creation of pairing guidelines within Barry Callebaut's range. TimeSens© software was applied to assess the dynamic interaction of flavors through temporal dominance of sensations (TDS). It was observed that each type of chocolate presents different interactions of dominant flavors depending on the nut and its applications. Furthermore, variables such as liking, balance, and check-all-that-apply (CATA) were analyzed to create pairing guidelines related to different responses on the predominant flavor of each of the chocolates. These case studies determined that the liking of the different pairs was influenced by the dominant flavors of each of the chocolates and the balance found in the match. From the predominant flavors, it was concluded that respondents preferred chocolates with sweet and dairy attributes such as: milky, creamy, buttery. Salty and vanilla flavors also made good pairs as they accentuate the nut flavor. On the contrary, chocolates with intense bitter, roasted, cocoa, and sour flavors did not create the best combinations with the nuts, as these are contrasting or strong flavors that consumers are usually unfamiliar with when combined with nuts. To complement this study, further analysis can be developed using other types of chocolates, nuts, and applications, and then comparing the dominant flavors of the chocolates with distinctive nuts to assess the consumers' response towards the combinations.

Systematic Review of Methods Used for Food Pairing with Coffee, Tea, Wine, and Beer

The current article is aimed at systematically reviewing the research methods used for food pairing with coffee, tea, wine, and beer. The primary aim of this review was to elucidate the state-of-the-art methods used for analysing food and beverage pairings with coffee, tea, wine, and beer; secondarily, to identify the basis of the selection criteria; and lastly, the method used to evaluate those pairings. The search was performed in three databases: Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and Scopus. Criteria for inclusion were studies with an experimental design, a descriptive analysis (DA), and/or hedonic consumer analysis of beverage and food pairing. The outcome had to be measured on a hedonic Likert scale, a line scale, a just about right (JAR), or a modified JAR scale or other relevant scale measurement method for the given attribute. A total of 24 studies were included in this review—the majority aimed at finding good food and beverage pairings. Most pairings were based on suggestions from experts on popular/common, similar origin, or quality of beverages and foods. The outcomes were measured in several different scales, precluding a direct comparison. The 24 articles used in this review did not provide a so-called “golden standard” of the pairing method. Only three articles provided a more scientifically based approach to investigate why a food and beverage pairing is perceived as a good match, using aromatic similarity, the primary taste, and the sensation of koku as their experimental factors.

Intertwined: What makes food and wine pairings appropriate?

This study sought to identify sensory attributes of appropriate food and wine pairings and relate them to balance, consumer liking, sensory complexity, and expected price. A descriptive analysis panel (n = 8) evaluated four Australian Shiraz wines along with four complex food samples, yielding 16 wine and food combinations. Based on the sensory profiles, distinct food and wine pairings (n = 6) were selected for consumer preference tests, comprising a real life, pseudo-three course meal with two wines. According to American consumers (n = 108), in the most appropriate pairings, flavour intensities increased and wine taste attributes changed in relation to individual components. Appropriate pairings positively correlated with liking, sensory complexity, and expected price to pay, and negatively with balance as a slight wine dominance was preferred. Pairings had an increase in liking and sensory complexity over the individual wine but not the food component. To account for individual variability, consumers were segmented by their liking of the pairing. Key drivers of successful pairings across consumer clusters were similar to the average consumer results, however, the preferred pairings differed by cluster. The findings suggest, the quality of food and wine pairings might be better measured with a combination of direct (dominance/balance, appropriateness of pairing) and indirect methods (sensory complexity, liking), instead of a single scale, and consumer segmentation may better account for the variability of results. The outcome of this study enhanced the understanding of the relationship between consumer behaviour and food and wine pairings.

Multisensory Flavour Perception: Blending, Mixing, Fusion, and Pairing Within and Between the Senses

This review summarizes the various outcomes that may occur when two or more elements are paired in the context of flavour perception. In the first part, I review the literature concerning what happens when flavours, ingredients, and/or culinary techniques are deliberately combined in a dish, drink, or food product. Sometimes the result is fusion but, if one is not careful, the result can equally well be confusion instead. In fact, blending, mixing, fusion, and flavour pairing all provide relevant examples of how the elements in a carefully-crafted multi-element tasting experience may be combined. While the aim is sometimes to obscure the relative contributions of the various elements to the mix (as in the case of blending), at other times, consumers/tasters are explicitly encouraged to contemplate/perceive the nature of the relationship between the contributing elements instead (e.g., as in the case of flavour pairing). There has been a noticeable surge in both popular and commercial interest in fusion foods and flavour pairing in recent years, and various of the 'rules' that have been put forward to help explain the successful combination of the elements in such food and/or beverage experiences are discussed. In the second part of the review, I examine the pairing of flavour stimuli with music/soundscapes, in the emerging field of 'sonic seasoning'. I suggest that the various perceptual pairing principles/outcomes identified when flavours are paired deliberately can also be meaningfully extended to provide a coherent framework when it comes to categorizing the ways in which what we hear can influence our flavour experiences, both in terms of the sensory-discriminative and hedonic response.

Food and beverage flavour pairing: A critical review of the literature

The recent explosion of interest in the topic of flavour pairing has been driven, at least in part, by the now-discredited food-pairing hypothesis, along with the emergence of the new field of computational gastronomy. Many chefs, sommeliers, mixologists, and drinks brands, not to mention a few food brands, have become increasingly interested in moving the discussions that they have with their consumers beyond the traditional focus solely on food and wine pairings. Here, two key approaches to pairing that might help to explain/justify those food and beverage combinations that the consumer is likely to appreciate are outlined. Historically-speaking, many conventional pairings emerged naturally from cultural/geographical matches, presumably internalized as semantic knowledge amongst consumers. In this review, such conventional pairings are framed as but one example of a cognitive/intellectual food-beverage strategy. The alternative approach to pairing that has become increasingly popular in recent years involves experts/commentators making recommendations based on the perceptual relationship, or interaction, between the component stimuli, be it one of perceived similarity, contrast, harmony, emergence, or modulation (either suppression or enhancement). Physicochemical accounts of pairing, based on the presence of shared flavour molecules (e.g., aromatic volatiles) in the to-be-combined flavours or ingredients, have also gained in popularity. Here, though, the latter approach is framed as an ultimately unsuccessful attempt to predict matches based on perceived similarity. This review summarizes the available evidence concerning food-beverage pairing and proposes a new dichotomy between intellectual/cognitive and perceptual pairing principles in the case of food-beverage matching.

Connecting flavors in social media: A cross cultural study with beer pairing

Culture is an important driver of food preferences and largely determines exposure to ingredients combinations. The cultural variety in culinary practices across countries raises the question of how flavor combinations are built and how they transcend individual differences in consumers' preferences. For example, in Latin America, despite having similar cultures and language, the diversity in culinary practices leads to different flavor combinations across nations. Therefore, we hypothesize that each country will show different preferences in flavor combinations that could be understood by social media exploration as an innovative approach. One study was conducted exploring social media in four countries (Argentina, Colombia, Peru, and Mexico) on a one-year basis, using a list of fifty-seven keywords associated with beer flavors. In a first analysis, the list of mentions from consumers was categorized in frequencies of flavors per country and analyzed using correspondence analysis (CA) and agglomerative hierarchical clustering (AHC). Results showed that the countries could be clustered in three groups. Cluster 1 with Mexico and Peru, and the rest of the countries in different clusters. The co-occurrence of paired flavors in social media was used to build a similarity matrix that was analyzed using multidimensional scaling (MDS) in order to find a pattern of pairing per country. The obtained map was useful to understand the cultural differences in flavor paring per country. Overall, the analysis of flavor pairing through social media was an effective technique to access the structure of flavor pairing for beer in different countries.