Personality traits and gender influence liking and choice of food pungency

Distinct Sensory Hedonic Functions for Sourness in Adults

Over the last half-century, variable responses to sweetness have repeatedly been shown to fall into a small number of hedonic responses, implying that looking only at group means may can obfuscate meaningfully different response patterns. Comparative data for sourness is quite sparse, especially in adults. While increased liking with higher acid concentration has been reported for some children, in adults, sourness is classically assumed to be aversive, with a monotonic drop in liking with increasing sourness. Here, we test this assumption using a simple model system or experimental beverage in convenience samples of adults from the United States (increasing citric acid in water) and Italy (increasing citric acid in pear juice). Participants rated intensity and liking of sampled stimuli. For both cohorts, we find clear evidence of three distinct patterns of responses: a strong negative group where liking dropped with increased sourness, an intermediate group who showed a more muted drop in liking with more sourness, and a strong positive group where liking increased with more sourness. Strikingly, both cohorts showed similar proportions of response patterns, with ~63-70% in the strong negative group, and 11-12% in the strong positive group, suggesting these proportions may be stable across cultures. Notably, the three groups did not differ by age or gender. These data support the existence of different hedonic response profiles to sour stimuli in adults, once again highlighting the importance of looking at individual differences and potential consumer segments, rather than merely averaging hedonic responses across all individuals within a group.

Sex-specific association between regional gray matter volume and spicy food craving or consumption

Both food cravings and long-term food consumption have been associated with brain changes. Sex differences in food craving are robust and substantial. The current study examined the potential sex-specific neuroanatomical correlates of spicy food craving and habitual spicy food consumption. One hundred and forty-nine participants completed the Spicy Food Consumption Questionnaire and the Spicy Food Craving Questionnaire while their structural brain images were acquired using a 3-T scanner. Multiple regression analysis was used to examine regional gray matter volume (GMV) in relation to questionnaire scores. GMV of the right supplementary motor area (SMA) and the dorsal superior frontal gyrus were significantly correlated with spicy food craving in women, whereas spicy food craving was associated with greater GMV of the inferior temporal gyrus and the occipital gyrus in men. In addition, habitual spicy food consumption was correlated with increased GMV of the bilateral putamen, left postcentral gyrus, and right paracentral lobule, which was more pronounced among female participants. These findings suggest distinct central neuroanatomical reflections of trait craving or habitual exposure to spicy flavors. The sex-specific correlation between spicy food craving and brain anatomical features may be related to food-related sensory imagery or cognitive control.

Responsiveness to warning sensations and anxiety-related psychological traits modulate individual differences in preference for vegetable foods with varied sensory properties

The innate aversion to warning sensations is an important barrier to the acceptance of vegetable food often characterized by bitter and sour tastes, and astringency. Large individual variations exist in preference for this food category. The present study aimed at exploring differences in demographics, anthropometrics, taste responsiveness, personality traits and attitudes in consumers differing in their preference for vegetable food with varied levels of warning sensations. A panel of Italian consumers (n = 718; 53.6% women, age 18-74 years) self-reported familiarity with, preference for and choice of vegetables with high and low levels of warning sensations. Two clusters were identified: High Warning-Vegetable Consumers (HWVC, n = 464) and Low-Warning Vegetable Consumers (LWVC, n = 254). HWVC showed higher familiarity with and preference for vegetables as a whole and higher choice of vegetables characterized by warning sensations than LWVC. HWVC were more represented by older and normal weight individuals as compared to LWVC. Differences among clusters in liking for and perception of a phenol-enriched plant-based food model specifically developed to induce different levels of bitterness, sourness and astringency were found. HWVC rated bitterness, sourness, and astringency lower and liking higher than LWVC. Scores in anxiety-related psychological traits were lower while attitudes to healthy and high-quality food choice were higher in HWVC than in LWVC. The results of the present study depicted a coherent interplay among several person-related dimensions in modulating preference for vegetable foods. Higher responsiveness to warning sensations, higher level of anxiety-related traits, lower importance assigned to food healthy/quality aspects and younger age all acted as barriers to exposure and acceptance of vegetable food and call for a multidimensional approach to promote the consumption of this food category.

Factors explaining individual differences in the oral perception of capsaicin, l-menthol, and aluminum ammonium sulfate

This research focused on the oral perception of naturally occurring chemical food compounds that are used in the pharma and food industries due to their pharmacological properties. They stimulate chemically sensitive receptors of the somatosensory system and are also chemesthetic compounds. Capsaicin is a naturally occurring alkaloid activating pungency perception. l-Menthol is a cyclic monoterpene working also as a medical cooling agent. Aluminum ammonium sulfate is used as a dehydrating agent and additive known to activate astringency in oral cavity. The objective of the study was to identify factors explaining individual differences in the perception of oral chemesthesis measured as sensitivity to chemesthetic compounds and their recognition. The subjects (N = 205) evaluated quality-specific prototypic compounds at five different concentration levels. Differences between gender were discovered in capsaicin sensitivity with men being less sensitive than women. Age was associated with the perception of capsaicin, l-menthol, aluminum ammonium sulfate, and the combined oral chemesthetic sensitivity. Quality-specific recognition ratings were also contributing to the sensitivity to chemesthetic compounds. A combined oral chemesthetic recognition score was created based on quality-specific recognition ratings. Increasing age generally indicated weaker recognition skills. Better recognizers had a higher combined oral chemesthetic sensitivity score than poorer recognizers. These results provide new information about chemesthesis. The results suggest that age and gender are important factors in explaining individual differences in sensitivity to capsaicin, l-menthol, and aluminum ammonium sulfate. In addition, recognition skills are associated with the sensitivity based on the quality-specific recognition scores.

Salivary microbial profiles associate with responsiveness to warning oral sensations and dietary intakes

Oral microbiota-host interactions are gaining recognition as potential factors contributing to interindividual variations in taste perception. However, whether such possible links imply specific bacterial co-occurrence networks remains unknown. To address this issue, we used 16 s rRNA gene sequencing to profile the salivary microbiota of 100 healthy individuals (52 % women; 18-30 y/o), who provided hedonic and psychophysical responses to 5 liquid and 5 solid commercially-available foods, each chosen to elicit a target sensation (sweet, sour, bitter, salty, pungent). The same cohort also completed several psychometric measures and a 4-day food diary. Unsupervised data-driven clustering of genus-level Aitchison distances supported the existence of two salivary microbial profiles (CL-1, CL-2). While CL-1 (n = 57; 49.1 % women) exhibited higher α-diversity metrics and was enriched in microbial genera assigned to the class Clostridia (e.g., Lachnospiraceae_[G-3]), CL-2 (n = 43; 55.8 % women) harbored greater amounts of taxa with potential cariogenic effects (e.g., genus Lactobacillus) and significantly lower abundances of inferred MetaCyc pathways related to the metabolic fate of acetate. Intriguingly, CL-2 showed enhanced responsiveness to warning oral sensations (bitter, sour, astringent) and a higher propensity to crave sweet foods or engage in prosocial behaviors. Further, the same cluster reported habitually consuming more simple carbohydrates and fewer beneficial nutrients (vegetable proteins, monounsaturated fatty acids). In summary, while the mediating role of participants' baseline diet on findings can not be definitively excluded, this work provides evidence suggesting that microbe-microbe and microbe-taste interactions may exert an influence on dietary habits and motivates further research to uncover a potential "core" taste-related salivary microbiota.

The contribution of subliminal perceptions, dietary habits, and psychological traits to the perception of oral tingling and burning sensations

The tingling evoked by Sichuan pepper and the burning elicited by chili pepper constitutes the typical flavor of Sichuan cuisine and is a component of leisure food. Although factors affecting the burning sensation have extensively been studied, few studies have examined the factors of individual sensitivity, personality traits, and dietary habits that contribute to the perception of oral tingling sensation, which hinders the formulation of tingling products and the development of new products. In contrast, many studies have examined the factors influencing the burning sensation. In this web-based survey, 68 participants disclosed their dietary habits, liking for tingling and hot foods, and psychological traits. Individual sensitivity to the tingling and burning sensation produced by a range of Sichuan pepper oleoresin and capsaicin solutions was determined using rated differences from control, generalized labeled magnitude scale method and ranking test. The consistency score indicated the accuracy of individual ranking results while also providing an indirect response to the sensitivity of the participant to supra-threshold for burning or tingling. Individual ratings for medium Sichuan pepper oleoresin concentrations significantly correlated with the just noticeable difference (p < 0.01), and ratings for medium and high capsaicin concentrations correlated significantly with 6-n-propylthiouracil ratings (p < 0.01). Notably, the power exponent of burning was significantly correlated with the burning recognition threshold (p < 0.01), and the power exponent of tingling and burning were significantly correlated (r = 0.340, p < 0.05). There was a negative correlation between supra-threshold tingling and burning sensation perceptions and life satisfaction ratings. Further, intensity ratings for oral tingling and burning sensation did not always correspond with individual sensitivity indicators (e.g., recognition threshold, 6-n-propylthiouracil, just noticeable difference, and consistency score). Thus, this study provides new insight into establishing a sensory selection method for chemesthetic sensation panelists and theoretical guidelines for formulation design and in-depth analysis of popular tingling dishes and foods.

Chili pepper preference development and its impact on dietary intake: A narrative review

A preference for chili pepper can be an acquired taste. The contrast between a chili lover and a hater illustrates the complexities involved in forming an appreciation for food that evokes a fiery pain sensation. This narrative review aims to understand the factors behind chili pepper preference formation across the life course and how individual chili pepper preferences can impact eating behaviors and dietary intake. This review was conducted using three databases, yielding 38 included articles. Results suggest five determinants of chili pepper preferences: culture, exposure, gender, genetics, and personality. Collective findings indicate that the strongest influences on preference acquisition include the individual environment from childhood to adulthood and repeated exposure to spicy flavors. With frequent exposure to spicy food, the perceived burn becomes less intense. Culture also influences exposure to chili peppers, with the highest consumption patterns seen within Mexico and some Asia countries. Additionally, males reported having a stronger preference for spicy foods than females. Twin studies illustrated that genetics influenced spicy taste preferences, underscoring the complexity of developing individual taste preferences. As for the impact of capsaicin-containing food on individual eating behaviors and dietary behaviors, appetite effects depend on the dose of capsaicin consumed, but three studies found a change in sensory desires for sweet and fatty foods after finishing a capsaicin-containing dish. Inconsistent results were reported for chili pepper's effects on hunger and satiety after consumption, but changes in specific food desires were observed. The impact of chili pepper on appetite and calories consumed was inconsistent, but the greater amount of capsaicin ingested, the greater the effect. Capsaicin's potential to be used for weight control needs to be further reviewed. In conclusion, evidence suggests that chili pepper preferences may be linked to innate and environmental aspects such as an individual's culture, gender, and genetics. Extrinsic factors like repeated exposure may increase the liking for spicy foods.

Emotional responses to taste and smell stimuli: Self-reports, physiological measures, and a potential role for individual and genetic factors

Taste and olfaction elicit conscious feelings by direct connection with the neural circuits of emotions that affects physiological responses in the body (e.g., heart rate and skin conductance). While sensory attributes are strong determinants of food liking, other factors such as emotional reactions to foods may be better predictors of consumer choices even for products that are equally-liked. Thus, important insights can be gained for understanding the full spectrum of emotional reactions to foods that inform the activities of product developers and marketers, eating psychologist and nutritionists, and policy makers. Today, self-reported questionnaires and physiological measures are the most common tools applied to study variations in emotional perception. The present review discusses these methodological approaches, underlining their different strengths and weaknesses. We also discuss a small, emerging literature suggesting that individual differences and genetic variations in taste and smell perception, like the genetic ability to perceive the bitter compound PROP, may also play a role in emotional reactions to aromas and foods.

Parsing the link between reinforcement sensitivity theory and eating behavior: A systematic review

The Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) is a widely studied psychobiological model of personality. RST factors seem to influence eating behavior, but how these personality traits are associated with distinct features of eating behavior is still unclear. In the present systematic review, we analyzed the relationship between RST personality factors and eating behavior using a parsing approach in which BMI-related results, self-reported results, and behavioral results were distinguished. Our analysis revealed that reward and punishment sensitivity seem to correlate and influence distinct features of eating behavior. The association between BMI and RST factors was uncertain, but nonlinear associations between reward sensitivity and weight need further testing. Reward sensitivity was linked to most eating behavior phenotypes (e.g., emotional eating and restrained eating), but only punishment sensitivity was primarily correlated with eating pathology. Reward sensitivity was the main factor linked with reactivity to food stimuli on many behavioral measures. The neurobiological personality factors of RST offer parsimonious concepts to understand eating behavior outcomes and the differential relationships observed are useful to translational research.

Relationships between Intensity and Liking for Chemosensory Stimuli in Food Models: A Large-Scale Consumer Segmentation

This study, which was conducted as part of the Italian Taste project, was aimed at exploring the relationship between actual liking and sensory perception in four food models. Each food model was spiked with four levels of prototypical tastant (i.e., citric acid, sucrose, sodium chloride, capsaicin) to elicit a target sensation (TS) at an increasing perceived intensity. Participants (N = 2258; 59% women, aged 18-60) provided demographic information, a stated liking for 40 different foods/beverages, and their responsiveness to tastants in water. A food-specific Pearson's coefficient was calculated individually to estimate the relationship between actual liking and TS responsiveness. Considering the relationship magnitude, consumers were grouped into four food-specific clusters, depending on whether they showed a strong negative (SNC), a weak negative (WNC), a weak positive (WPC), or a strong positive correlation (SPC). Overall, the degree of liking raised in parallel with sweetness responsiveness, fell as sourness and pungency perception increased, and showed an inverted U-shape relationship with saltiness. The SNC clusters generally perceived TSs at higher intensities, except for sourness. Clusters were validated by associating the level of stated liking towards food/beverages; however, some unexpected indications emerged: adding sugar to coffee or preferring spicy foods differentiated those presenting positive correlations from those showing negative correlations. Our findings constitute a step towards a more comprehensive understanding of food preferences.

Analysis of Pungency Sensation Effects from an Oral Processing, Sensorial and Emotions Detection Perspective—Case Study with Grilled Pork Meat

Pungency is an interesting sensory stimulus analyzed from different perspectives, in particular the underpinning mechanisms of its sensation and perception. In this study, grilled pork meat coated with three types of hot sauces were investigated regarding its main food oral processing characteristics and evaluated using time-intensity and temporal dominance of pungency sensations methods analyzing the pungency descriptors and intensities. Besides these methods, facial expressions obtained from video capturing were subject to emotion detection. Mastication parameters showed a slight, but not statistically significant, trend of an increased number of chews and consumption time associated with pungency intensity, while saliva incorporation indicated an increasing trend depending on the pungency intensity, especially after 25 strokes and before swallowing. Both time intensity and temporal dominance of pungency sensations showed that the complexity of understanding these sensations is in relation to intensity and type. Finally, the use of emotion detection software in analyzing the faces of panelists during mastication confirmed the increase in non-neutral emotions associated with the increase in pungency intensity.

Variations in the Strength of Association between Food Neophobia and Food and Beverage Acceptability: A Data-Driven Exploratory Study of an Arousal Hypothesis

The negative impact of food neophobia (FN) on food and beverage (F&B) liking extends beyond foods and beverages that are novel. In addition, F&Bs that are high in flavour intensity, perceived as dangerous, or have connections to other cultures are likely to elicit rejection by those high in FN. Each of these factors have been established as producing increased arousal, potentially to an unpleasant degree. The aim of this study was to explore the hypothesis that increased arousal underlies all causes of rejection due to FN. To do this, we analysed and interpreted existing data based on online surveys that measured FN and liking for a broad range of F&B names from 8906 adult consumers in the USA, United Kingdom, Australia, Germany and Denmark. Negative associations between FN and liking of varying strengths were evident for 90% of the F&Bs. Consistent with the arousal hypothesis, F&Bs (a) with high flavour intensity, whether produced by chilli, other spices, or flavours, (b) from other cultures, (c) often perceived as dangerous, or (d) that were novel or had novel ingredients showed the strongest negative relationships between FN and liking. Conversely, F&Bs whose liking scores were only very weakly related to FN had low arousal characteristics: high familiarity, sweetness, mild flavours, strong connections to national food cultures, or some combination of these factors. Since this study was exploratory and conducted on existing data, there was no direct measure of arousal, but this is recommended for future, stronger tests of this arousal hypothesis.

The influence of NaCl on the dynamic perception of the pungency sensation elicited by Sichuan pepper oleoresins

A cross-modal interaction may exist between the perception of saltiness and the pungency elicited by Sichuan pepper oleoresin (Spo). Thirty-one hypersensitive panelists were selected to participate in this study. Spo solutions dissolved in different NaCl concentrations, ranging from 1.25 g/L to 167.9 g/L, were used as the test samples. The rated difference from control, the generalized labeled magnitude scale (gLMS), and the time-intensity (TI) method were used to determine the detection threshold (DT), the recognition threshold (RT), the intensity, and the dynamic perception of pungent sensation. The results revealed that the pungency thresholds increased significantly (p < 0.01) in the solution with a high NaCl (167.9 g/L) concentration. Furthermore, high NaCl solutions suppressed the pungency intensity at all Spo concentrations except for 0.02 g Spo/L in water (p < 0.05). The TI and principal component analysis (PCA) results showed that an increase in the Spo concentration prolonged the duration of the pungency sensation. However, the maximum intensity, the time to reach maximum intensity, the decay time of perception, and the end time of perception of the Spo solutions ranging from 2.13 g/L to 4.69 g/L were significantly reduced at medium (42.95 g/L) and high NaCl concentrations. Since the salty and pungency sensations exhibited by NaCl and Spo are common flavor combinations in food products and dishes, studying the influence of saltiness on the dynamic perception of pungent sensation not only aids the development of oral cleaners during pungency evaluation but also presents significant theoretical and practical value in creating pungent food and cuisine based on consumer preferences.

Is it still still water? Relationships between sparkling sensitivity and consumption frequency of carbonated waters

Little is known about how sensitivity to trigeminal stimulation such as carbonation is affected by consumption habits and consumer characteristics. The aim of this study was to determine how detection thresholds for and perception of sparkling sensations in carbonated mineral water are affected by frequency of consumption of carbonated water and individual consumer characteristics. One hundred subjects differing in sparkling water consumption frequency (non-consumers, infrequent consumers, frequent consumers) participated. First, sparkling sensation detection thresholds were determined using the method of best estimate threshold (BET) with CO₂ concentrations ranging from 0.03 to 1.05 g/L. Secondly, intensity of sparkling sensation and liking of five sparkling waters (CO₂ concentrations ranging from 0.21 to 4.92 g/L) were assessed. To characterize consumers, consumption frequency of sparkling water, sensitivity to 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP taster status) and consumer characteristics were determined. Average detection threshold of sparkling sensation (BET) was 0.44 g/L CO₂ concentration. BET of sparkling sensation was not affected by consumption frequency of sparkling water and was not related to PROP taster status and consumer characteristics. Perception of sparkling intensity and liking of carbonated mineral water were significantly affected by consumption frequency of sparkling water. Sparkling sensations were perceived significantly more intensive by non-consumers compared to infrequent and frequent consumers. Surprisingly, non-consumers liked sparkling water significantly more than infrequent or frequent consumers. We conclude that consumption frequency of and preferences for carbonated water do not influence detection thresholds of sparkling sensations but influence suprathreshold intensity perception of sparkling sensations in carbonated water.

Oral Sensitivity to Flowability and Food Neophobia Drive Food Preferences and Choice

The study aimed to investigate the role of sensitivity to flowability on food liking and choice, the relationship between sensitivity to flowability and food neophobia, and its role in food liking. Five chocolate creams were prepared with different levels of flowability, and rheological measurements were performed to characterise them. One hundred seventy-six subjects filled in the Food Neophobia Scale and a food choice questionnaire (FCq). The FCq was developed to evaluate preferences within a pair of food items similar in flavour but different in texture. Secondly, the subjects evaluated their liking for creams (labelled affective magnitude (LAM) scale) and the flowability intensity (generalised labelled magnitude (gLM) scale). The subjects were clustered into three groups of sensitivity and two groups of choice preference. The effect of individual flowability sensitivity on food choice was investigated. Finally, the subjects were clustered into two groups according to their food neophobia level. The sensitivity to flowability significantly affected the liking of chocolate creams and the solid food choice. The liking of chocolate creams was also affected by the individual level of neophobia (p = 0.01), which, in turn, was not correlated to flowability sensitivity. These results confirm that texture sensitivity and food neophobia affect what a person likes and drives what a person chooses to eat.

ALTERTASTE: improving food pleasure and intake of oncology patients receiving chemotherapy

ALTERTASTE is a prospective study to evaluate changes in taste/flavor perception and food preferences in patients treated with adjuvant or neoadjuvant chemotherapy for breast or colorectal cancer. The study adopts a longitudinal approach. Taste and odor responsiveness, food preferences and habits, emotions elicited by foods, and quality of life will be measured at six-time points: before chemotherapy (T0), after two cycles (T1, after around 1 month), after four cycles (T2, after around 2 months), after six cycles (T3, after around 4 months), at the end of chemotherapy (T4, after around 6 months) and 3 months after the conclusion of the therapy (T5). In addition, patients will be characterized for oral responsiveness and their psychological traits and attitudes toward food. The ALTERTASTE trial is expected to improve the understanding of the impact of chemotherapy on taste and smell and the repercussions of these alterations on food behaviors. Furthermore, the trial aims to develop an easy and reliable procedure to test smell, taste and food behavior alterations to allow a routine measure with patients. Clinical trial registration: NCT04495387 (ClinicalTrials.gov).

Food Preferences and Obesity

Obesity is a multifactorial disease with several potential causes that remain incompletely understood. Recent changes in the environment, which has become increasingly obesogenic, have been found to interact with individual factors. Evidence of the role of taste responsiveness and food preference in obesity has been reported, pointing to a lower taste sensitivity and a higher preference and intake of fat and, to a lesser extent, sweet foods in obese people. Studies in the last decades have also suggested that individual differences in the neurophysiology of food reward may lead to overeating, contributing to obesity. However, further studies are needed to confirm these findings. In fact, only a limited number of studies has been conducted on large samples, and several studies were conducted only on women. Larger balanced studies in terms of sex/gender and age are required in order to control the confounding effect of these variables. As many factors are intertwined in obesity, a multidisciplinary approach is needed. This will allow a better understanding of taste alteration and food behaviours in obese people in order to design more effective strategies to promote healthier eating and to prevent obesity and the related chronic disease risks.

Male, Female, and Nonbinary Differences in UK Twitter Self-descriptions: A Fine-grained Systematic Exploration

Purpose

Although gender identities influence how people present themselves on social media, previous studies have tested pre-specified dimensions of difference, potentially overlooking other differences and ignoring nonbinary users.

Design/methodology/approach

Word association thematic analysis was used to systematically check for fine-grained statistically significant gender differences in Twitter profile descriptions between 409,487 UK-based female, male, and nonbinary users in 2020. A series of statistical tests systematically identified 1,474 differences at the individual word level, and a follow up thematic analysis grouped these words into themes.

Findings

The results reflect offline variations in interests and in jobs. They also show differences in personal disclosures, as reflected by words, with females mentioning qualifications, relationships, pets, and illnesses much more, nonbinaries discussing sexuality more, and males declaring political and sports affiliations more. Other themes were internally imbalanced, including personal appearance (e.g. male: beardy; female: redhead), self-evaluations (e.g. male: legend; nonbinary: witch; female: feisty), and gender identity (e.g. male: dude; nonbinary: enby; female: queen).

Research limitations

The methods are affected by linguistic styles and probably under-report nonbinary differences.

Practical implications

The gender differences found may inform gender theory, and aid social web communicators and marketers.

Originality/value

The results show a much wider range of gender expression differences than previously acknowledged for any social media site.

Phenol-Rich Food Acceptability: The Influence of Variations in Sweetness Optima and Sensory-Liking Patterns

The consumption of phenol-rich foods is limited by their prominent bitterness and astringency. This issue has been addressed by adding sweet tastes, which suppress bitterness, but this is not a complete solution since individuals also differ in their preference for sweetness. In this study, we aimed at identifying groups of consumers differing in sweetness optima and sensory-liking patterns. To this end, increasing concentrations of sucrose were added to a chocolate pudding base. This allowed us to (1) investigate if individual differences in sensory responses are associated with different sweet liking optima in a product context, (2) define the psychological and oro-sensory profile of sweet liker phenotypes derived using a product context, and (3) assess if individuals differing in sweet liking optima differ also in consumption and liking of phenol-rich foods and beverages as a function of their sensory properties (e.g., sweeter vs. more bitter and astringent products). Individuals (1208; 58.4% women, 18–69 years) were characterised for demographics, responsiveness to 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP), personality traits and attitudes toward foods. Three clusters were identified based on correlations between sensory responses (sweetness, bitterness and astringency) and liking of the samples: liking was positively related to sweetness and negatively to bitterness and astringency in High and Moderate Sweet Likers, and the opposite in Inverted U-Shaped. Differences between clusters were found in age, gender and personality. Furthermore, the Inverted-U Shaped cluster was found to have overall healthier food behaviours and preferences, with higher liking and consumption of phenol-rich vegetables and beverages without added sugar. These findings point out the importance of identifying the individual sensory-liking patterns in order to develop more effective strategies to promote the acceptability of healthy phenol-rich foods.

Yuck, This Biscuit Looks Lumpy! Neophobic Levels and Cultural Differences Drive Children's Check-All-That-Apply (CATA) Descriptions and Preferences for High-Fibre Biscuits

Food neophobia influences food choice in school-aged children. However, little is known about how children with different degrees of food neophobia perceive food and to what extent different sensory attributes drive their liking. This paper explores liking and sensory perception of fibre-rich biscuits in school-aged children (n = 509, age 9–12 years) with different degrees of food neophobia and from five different European countries (Finland, Italy, Spain, Sweden and United Kingdom). Children tasted and rated their liking of eight commercial biscuits and performed a Check-All-That-Apply task to describe the samples and further completed a Food Neophobia Scale. Children with a higher degree of neophobia displayed a lower liking for all tasted biscuits (p < 0.001). Cross-cultural differences in liking also appeared (p < 0.001). A negative correlation was found between degree of neophobia and the number of CATA-terms used to describe the samples (r = −0.116, p = 0.009). Penalty analysis showed that degree of food neophobia also affected drivers of biscuit liking, where particularly appearance terms were drivers of disliking for neophobic children. Cross-cultural differences in drivers of liking and disliking were particularly salient for texture attributes. Further research should explore if optimizing appearance attributes could be a way to increase liking of fibre-rich foods in neophobic children.

Pungency perception and liking for pasta filata cheeses in consumers from different Italian regions

We aimed to investigate whether the sensitivity to capsaicin had an effect on pungency perception of pasta filata cheeses. In addition, we assessed the effect of several individual variables (gender, age, consumer provenance, PROP status and personality traits) on both consumer liking and choice for pasta filata cheeses. Four pasta filata cheeses at two ripening times and 272 subjects from three different Italian locations were used. Based on sensory data, the PCA discriminated sweet (ripened at 2 months) from pungent cheeses (ripened at 12 months). Cheese pungency perception increased with increasing sensitivity to capsaicin (P < 0.001). There was no clear relationship between sensitivity to capsaicin or sensitivity to cheese pungency with cheese liking, whereas a number of other aspects, including sensory attributes and individual consumer characteristics, such as consumer provenance (P < 0.001), gender (P < 0.001) and food neophobia (P < 0.05), affected the liking for different pasta filata cheeses. Consumers who were younger (18-30 y.o.; P < 0.05), female (P < 0.001), unfamiliar with pungent foods (P < 0.0001) and consumers from Potenza (P = 0.001) more often declared to prefer sweet over pungent cheese, whereas in terms of real choice supertasters and neophobic subjects chose the sweet option more often (P = 0.01). In conclusion, sensitivity to capsaicin affected pungency perception in pasta filata cheese, whereas no clear relationship was observed between pungency perception and liking. The contribution of cheese and consumer characteristics on cheese liking and choice in addition to pungency, was confirmed by the differences in declared and real choice for sweet or pungent cheeses.

Importance of food choice motives vary with degree of food neophobia

Food Neophobia (FN) is a stable trait that measures individuals' propensity to avoid novel/unfamiliar foods. In this research, focus was directed to covariation between FN and food choice factors as measured using two variants of the food choice questionnaire (FCQ). To our knowledge, there are no previous studies which investigates these associations in detail, and in this regard the present research advances understanding of individual differences in FN and FCQ. Existing survey data were used, collected in the USA and Australia with ~1500 and ~750 consumers, respectively. Data from New Zealand came from studies conducted at central location test (CLT) facilities (Ñ400, Ñ1100). There were many consistencies in results across the four studies, and this was noteworthy considering that the data were obtained in 3 different countries across more than 10 years and with participants in CLT and online studies. The FCQ factor Familiarity always gained in importance with increasing FN. The FCQ factor Convenience also always gained in importance with increasing FN, in particular importance of simplicity in preparation and cooking. Conversely, the factors Health and Natural Content decreased in importance, as did factors linked to Environmental and Social Justice concerns. Price and Sensory Appeal remained very important for daily food choices among "neophobic" and "neophilic" consumers alike, and this mirrors past studies from diverse consumer populations. The importance of Mood was low regardless of FN status. Additional research is needed to confirm that these findings generalise to consumers in other countries, and assuming they do, this work contributes to the mounting evidence of the pervasive effects of FN on consumers' food-related experiences and motivations. Determining why FN influences food choice motives is an important next step.

Arousal influences olfactory abilities in adults with different degree of food neophobia

Food neophobia, i.e., the aversion to novel foods, and olfaction are both factors strongly affecting food choices. Mounting evidence suggests a higher arousal towards food as a key factor underlying the reluctance to eat what is unfamiliar to us. As the role of olfaction behind this phenomenon is poorly understood, we explored the associations between food neophobia and trait anxiety, olfactory functions (odor threshold, discrimination and identification) and retronasal aroma release from a reference food in a healthy cohort of 83 adult volunteers. We grouped participants in Low-Neophobics or neophilics (n = 35), Medium-Neophobics (n = 32) and High-Neophobics (n = 16) according to the widely recognized Food Neophobia Scale. Participants with higher neophobic tendencies were found to have marginally higher trait anxiety levels than neophilics (p = 0.10). A lower global olfactory functioning and odor discrimination abilities characterized High-Neophobics, while Medium-Neophobics showed a higher odor sensitiveness than Low-Neophobics. Lastly, High-Neophobics showed a lower extent of retronasal aroma release, likely due to a shorter duration of oral processing and higher anxiety-related physiological responses (such as breathing rate). In summary, this study supports the assumption that the conflicting relationship that neophobics have with food may be led by higher levels of arousal toward foods, rather than different chemosensory functions.

Cross-Cultural Consumer Acceptability for Ethnic Fermented Sauce Products: Comparisons among Korean, UAE, and US Consumers

The present study investigated the drivers of liking ethnic sauces in a cross-cultural context. Experiments were conducted to understand the acceptance of salad dressings and dipping sauces developed from Korean fermented seasonings among consumers with different ethnic backgrounds, including: South Korean, United Arab Emirates (UAE), and American. The samples of interest included four types of salad dressings made from fermented soybean paste (doenjang) and four types of spicy dipping sauces made from fermented chili pepper paste (gochujang). The salad dressings were preferred by Korean and US consumers. Koreans liked the nutty-flavored salad dressings, whereas UAE and American consumers commonly liked the spicy type. There was a stronger cross-cultural agreement in liking dipping sauces rather than salad dressings. Both Korean and American consumers liked spicy dipping sauces that elicited a sweet taste. UAE consumers tended to prefer the less spicy dipping sauce samples. Consumers in all three countries generally liked spicy dipping sauces more than salad dressings. Cultural differences were observed between the responses depending on the presence and level of spiciness in the two different food types. For product development with ethnic fermented flavors or chili spices, the contextual appropriateness and consumer familiarity with the corresponding flavor should be taken into account.

Profiling Individual Differences in Alcoholic Beverage Preference and Consumption: New Insights from a Large-Scale Study

Alcoholic beverage consumption plays an important role in European culture, and in many contexts drinking alcohol is socially acceptable and considered part of the diet. Understanding the determinants of alcohol preference and consumption is important not only for disease prevention, intervention, and policy management, but also for market segmentation, product development, and optimization. The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of individual responsiveness to various oral sensations on self-reported liking and intake of 14 alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages (including beers, wines, spirits, and cocktails) considering gender, age, and oral responsiveness (measured through response to 6-n-propyl-2-thiouracil -PROP, basic tastes, astringency, and pungency) in a large sample of Italian consumers. Data were collected from 2388 respondents (age range 18–60 years; mean age = 37.6, SD = 13.1; 58.2% women). These results indicate that notwithstanding the strong gender difference, with women generally liking and consuming fewer alcoholic beverages than men, liking patterns in the two genders were similar. Three liking patterns for different alcoholic beverages largely driven by orosensory properties were identified in both genders. “Spirit-lovers” constituted the smallest group (12%), consumed alcoholic beverages of any kind (not only spirits) more than the other segments, and were mainly men aged 30–45. “Beer/wine lovers” (44%) were the oldest group with no difference by gender. “Mild-drink lovers” (44%) liked alcoholic drinks with intense sweet taste and/or mixers that moderate ethanol perception. They were mainly women, aged 18–29, had a lower consumption of alcohol, and a higher orosensory responsiveness than the other two groups. The results also suggest the opportunity to develop personalized recommendations towards specific consumer segments based not only on socio-demographics but considering also perceptive variables. Finally, our data suggest that increased burning and bitterness from alcohol may act as a sensory hindrance to alcoholic beverage overconsumption.

Italian consumers' attitudes towards entomophagy: Influence of human factors and properties of insects and insect-based food

Studies on consumers' perceptions towards entomophagy have recently gained popularity. However, the use of the general term "insect" represents a limitation of previous research, due to the need for more precise terminology. This study assessed attitudes towards specific insects, their gastronomic preparations, their relationships with human factors and the characteristics of insects as a food source. Using a survey, socio-demographics, personality traits, willingness to eat (WTE) six edible insects and their relative insect-based products or dishes (IBPD) and the emotions associated with entomophagy were collected from 400 Italians. Compared with females, males were found to be more positive towards insects, less influenced by the species and level of processing of insects and more willing to eat insects for reasons of taste. Eating insects evoked adventurous, daring and wild emotions, while disgust and food neophobia represented the main factors in refusal to eat insects. WTE was: crickets > bee larvae and grasshoppers > mealworms and silkworms > giant water bugs. A similar result was obtained considering the respective IBPD. On average, adult insects were preferred over larvae. Three subject groups, namely "In favour of eating insects" (41%), "Picky towards eating insects" (32%) and "Against eating insects" (27%) were found. A sensory evaluation performed on three cricket-based samples with 52 Italians revealed that a low level of insect visibility was preferred. This study gives new insights into the variables related to the acceptance of entomophagy by determining the characteristics of a potential consumer and of a probable insect product for the market.

Gender, Age, Geographical Area, Food Neophobia and Their Relationships with the Adherence to the Mediterranean Diet: New Insights from a Large Population Cross-Sectional Study

The Mediterranean diet (MD) is associated with many health benefits. The association between the MD and food neophobia (FN) is still unexplored in adults. The present cross-sectional study was aimed to explore the relationships between adherence to the MD, FN, and sociodemographic variables in a large Italian cohort. Familiarity and frequency use (FFI) of prototypical and non-prototypical Mediterranean foods were used to calculate a new adherence index: the Italian Taste Mediterranean Index (ITMI). The FFI of all Mediterranean foods increased with age, while butter, soft drinks, red/cured meat, and sweets were more common in younger people. Accordingly, ITMI increased with age (F_2,2384 = 54.11; p < 0.0001). Women recorded a higher ITMI (6.70) than men (6.10). Individuals with high FN showed higher FFI for soft drinks and sweets and lower ones for most typical MD foods, than individuals with low FNs. A decrease of ITMI was recorded with the increase of the FN(F_2,2384 = 22.84; p < 0.0001). With ageing, ITMI increased even in individuals with a high FN. The results suggest that FN may negatively affect adherence to the MD, lowering its potential health benefits, in the adult population. Monitoring of food habits, dietary education, and anxiety management, may be valuable tools to control FN and support the adherence to the MD.