Proteomic strategies to unravel age-related redox signalling defects in skeletal muscle

50 shades of oxidative stress: A state-specific cysteine redox pattern hypothesis

Oxidative stress is biochemically complex. Like primary colours, specific reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant inputs can be mixed to create unique "shades" of oxidative stress. Even a minimal redox module comprised of just 12 (ROS & antioxidant) inputs and 3 outputs (oxidative damage, cysteine-dependent redox-regulation, or both) yields over half a million "shades" of oxidative stress. The present paper proposes the novel hypothesis that: state-specific shades of oxidative stress, such as a discrete disease, are associated with distinct tell-tale cysteine oxidation patterns. The patterns are encoded by many parameters, from the identity of the oxidised proteins, the cysteine oxidation type, and magnitude. The hypothesis is conceptually grounded in distinct ROS and antioxidant inputs coalescing to produce unique cysteine oxidation outputs. And considers the potential biological significance of the holistic cysteine oxidation outputs. The literature supports the existence of state-specific cysteine oxidation patterns. Measuring and manipulating these patterns offer promising avenues for advancing oxidative stress research. The pattern inspired hypothesis provides a framework for understanding the complex biochemical nature of state-specific oxidative stress.

Performance benchmarking microplate-immunoassays for quantifying target-specific cysteine oxidation reveals their potential for understanding redox-regulation and oxidative stress

The antibody-linked oxi-state assay (ALISA) for quantifying target-specific cysteine oxidation can benefit specialist and non-specialist users. Specialists can benefit from time-efficient analysis and high-throughput target and/or sample n-plex capacities. The simple and accessible "off-the-shelf" nature of ALISA brings the benefits of oxidative damage assays to non-specialists studying redox-regulation. Until performance benchmarking establishes confidence in the "unseen" microplate results, ALISA is unlikely to be widely adopted. Here, we implemented pre-set pass/fail criteria to benchmark ALISA by evaluating immunoassay performance in diverse contexts. ELISA-mode ALISA assays were accurate, reliable, and sensitive. For example, the average inter-assay CV for detecting 20%- and 40%-oxidised PRDX2 or GAPDH standards was 4.6% (range: 3.6-7.4%). ALISA displayed target-specificity. Immunodepleting the target decreased the signal by ∼75%. Single-antibody formatted ALISA failed to quantify the matrix-facing alpha subunit of the mitochondrial ATP synthase. However, RedoxiFluor quantified the alpha subunit displaying exceptional performance in the single-antibody format. ALISA discovered that (1) monocyte-to-macrophage differentiation amplified PRDX2-oxidation in THP-1 cells and (2) exercise increased GAPDH-specific oxidation in human erythrocytes. The "unseen" microplate data were "seen-to-be-believed" via orthogonal visually displayed immunoassays like the dimer method. Finally, we established target (n = 3) and sample (n = 100) n-plex capacities in ∼4 h with 50-70 min hands-on time. Our work showcases the potential of ALISA to advance our understanding of redox-regulation and oxidative stress.

Oxiforms: Unique cysteine residue- and chemotype-specified chemical combinations can produce functionally-distinct proteoforms: Like how mixing primary colours creates new shades, cysteine residue- and chemotype-specified chemical combinations can produce functionally-distinct proteoforms called oxiforms: Like how mixing primary colours creates new shades, cysteine residue- and chemotype-specified chemical combinations can produce functionally-distinct proteoforms called oxiforms

A single protein molecule with one or more cysteine residues can occupy a plurality of unique residue and oxidation-chemotype specified proteoforms that I term oxiforms. In binary reduced or oxidised terms, one molecule with three cysteines will adopt one of eight unique oxiforms. Residue-defined sulfur chemistry endows specific oxiforms with distinct functionally-relevant biophysical properties (e.g., steric effects). Their emergent complexity means a functionally-relevant effect may only manifest when multiple cysteines are oxidised. Like how mixing colours makes new shades, combining discrete redox chemistries-colours-can create a kaleidoscope of oxiform hues. The sheer diversity of oxiforms co-existing within the human body provides a biological basis for redox heterogeneity. Of evolutionary significance, oxiforms may enable individual cells to mount a broad spectrum of responses to the same stimulus. Their biological significance, however plausible, is speculative because protein-specific oxiforms remain essentially unexplored. Excitingly, pioneering new techniques can push the field into uncharted territory by quantifying oxiforms. The oxiform concept can advance our understanding of redox-regulation in health and disease.

Fiber-Type Shifting in Sarcopenia of Old Age: Proteomic Profiling of the Contractile Apparatus of Skeletal Muscles

The progressive loss of skeletal muscle mass and concomitant reduction in contractile strength plays a central role in frailty syndrome. Age-related neuronal impairments are closely associated with sarcopenia in the elderly, which is characterized by severe muscular atrophy that can considerably lessen the overall quality of life at old age. Mass-spectrometry-based proteomic surveys of senescent human skeletal muscles, as well as animal models of sarcopenia, have decisively improved our understanding of the molecular and cellular consequences of muscular atrophy and associated fiber-type shifting during aging. This review outlines the mass spectrometric identification of proteome-wide changes in atrophying skeletal muscles, with a focus on contractile proteins as potential markers of changes in fiber-type distribution patterns. The observed trend of fast-to-slow transitions in individual human skeletal muscles during the aging process is most likely linked to a preferential susceptibility of fast-twitching muscle fibers to muscular atrophy. Studies with senescent animal models, including mostly aged rodent skeletal muscles, have confirmed fiber-type shifting. The proteomic analysis of fast versus slow isoforms of key contractile proteins, such as myosin heavy chains, myosin light chains, actins, troponins and tropomyosins, suggests them as suitable bioanalytical tools of fiber-type transitions during aging.

Systems modelling predicts chronic inflammation and genomic instability prevent effective mitochondrial regulation during biological ageing

The regulation of mitochondrial turnover under conditions of stress occurs partly through the AMPK-NAD+-PGC1α-SIRT1 signalling pathway. This pathway can be affected by both genomic instability and chronic inflammation since these will result in an increased rate of NAD+ degradation through PARP1 and CD38 respectively. In this work we develop a computational model of this signalling pathway, calibrating and validating it against experimental data. The computational model is used to study mitochondrial turnover under conditions of stress and how it is affected by genomic instability, chronic inflammation and biological ageing in general. We report that the AMPK-NAD+-PGC1α-SIRT1 signalling pathway becomes less responsive with age and that this can prime for the accumulation of dysfunctional mitochondria.

RedoxiFluor: A microplate technique to quantify target-specific protein thiol redox state in relative percentage and molar terms

Unravelling how reactive oxygen species regulate fundamental biological processes is hampered by the lack of an accessible microplate technique to quantify target-specific protein thiol redox state in percentages and moles. To meet this unmet need, we present RedoxiFluor. RedoxiFluor uses two spectrally distinct thiol-reactive fluorescent conjugated reporters, a capture antibody, detector antibody and a standard curve to quantify target-specific protein thiol redox state in relative percentage and molar terms. RedoxiFluor can operate in global mode to assess the redox state of the bulk thiol proteome and can simultaneously assess the redox state of multiple targets in array mode. Extensive proof-of-principle experiments robustly validate the assay principle and the value of each RedoxiFluor mode in diverse biological contexts. In particular, array mode RedoxiFluor shows that the response of redox-regulated phosphatases to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) differs in human monocytes. Specifically, LPS increased PP2A-, SHP1-, PTP1B-, and CD45-specific reversible thiol oxidation without changing the redox state of calcineurin, PTEN, and SHP2. The relative percentage and molar terms are interpretationally useful and define the most complete and extensive microplate redox analysis achieved to date. RedoxiFluor is a new antibody technology with the power to quantify relative target-specific protein thiol redox state in percentages and moles relative to the bulk thiol proteome and selected other targets in a widely accessible, simple and easily implementable microplate format.

ALISA: A microplate assay to measure protein thiol redox state

Measuring protein thiol redox state is central to understanding redox signalling in health and disease. The lack of a microplate assay to measure target specific protein thiol redox state rate-limits progress on accessibility grounds: redox proteomics is inaccessible to most. Developing a microplate assay is important for accelerating discovery by widening access to protein thiol redox biology. Beyond accessibility, enabling high throughput time- and cost-efficient microplate analysis is important. To meet the pressing need for a microplate assay to measure protein thiol redox state, we present the Antibody-Linked Oxi-State Assay (ALISA). ALISA uses a covalently bound capture antibody to bind a thiol-reactive fluorescent conjugated maleimide (F-MAL) decorated target. The capture antibody-target complex is labelled with an amine-reactive fluorescent N-hydroxysuccinimide ester (F-NHS) to report total protein. The covalent bonds that immobilise the capture antibody to the epoxy group functionalised microplate enable one to selectively elute the target. Target specific redox state is ratiometrically calculated as: F-MAL (i.e., reversible thiol oxidation)/F-NHS (i.e., total protein). After validating the assay principle (i.e., increased target specific reversible thiol oxidation increases the ratio), we used ALISA to determine whether fertilisation-a fundamental biological process-changes Akt, a serine/threonine protein kinase, specific reversible thiol oxidation. Fertilisation significantly decreases Akt specific reversible thiol oxidation in Xenopus laevis 2-cell zygotes compared to unfertilised eggs. ALISA is an accessible microplate assay to advance knowledge of protein thiol redox biology in health and disease.

Mechanisms of Mitochondrial ROS Production in Assisted Reproduction: The Known, the Unknown, and the Intriguing

The consensus that assisted reproduction technologies (ART), like in vitro fertilization, to induce oxidative stress (i.e., the known) belies how oocyte/zygote mitochondria-a major presumptive oxidative stressor-produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) with ART being unknown. Unravelling how oocyte/zygote mitochondria produce ROS is important for disambiguating the molecular basis of ART-induced oxidative stress and, therefore, to rationally target it (e.g., using site-specific mitochondria-targeted antioxidants). I review the known mechanisms of ROS production in somatic mitochondria to critique how oocyte/zygote mitochondria may produce ROS (i.e., the unknown). Several plausible site- and mode-defined mitochondrial ROS production mechanisms in ART are proposed. For example, complex I catalyzed reverse electron transfer-mediated ROS production is conceivable when oocytes are initially extracted due to at least a 10% increase in molecular dioxygen exposure (i.e., the intriguing). To address the term oxidative stress being used without recourse to the underlying chemistry, I use the species-specific spectrum of biologically feasible reactions to define plausible oxidative stress mechanisms in ART. Intriguingly, mitochondrial ROS-derived redox signals could regulate embryonic development (i.e., their production could be beneficial). Their potential beneficial role raises the clinical challenge of attenuating oxidative damage while simultaneously preserving redox signaling. This discourse sets the stage to unravel how mitochondria produce ROS in ART, and their biological roles from oxidative damage to redox signaling.

Quantitative Redox Biology of Exercise

Biology is rich in claims that reactive oxygen and nitrogen species are involved in every biological process and disease. However, many quantitative aspects of redox biology remain elusive. The important quantitative parameters you need to address the feasibility of redox reactions in vivo are: rate of formation and consumption of a reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, half-life, diffusibility and membrane permeability. In the first part, we explain the basic chemical kinetics concepts and algebraic equations required to perform "street fighting" quantitative analysis. In the second part, we provide key numbers to help thinking about sizes, concentrations, rates and other important quantities that describe the major oxidants (superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, nitric oxide) and antioxidants (vitamin C, vitamin E, glutathione). In the third part, we present the quantitative effect of exercise on superoxide, hydrogen peroxide and nitric oxide concentration in mitochondria and whole muscle and calculate how much hydrogen peroxide concentration needs to increase to transduce signalling. By taking into consideration the quantitative aspects of redox biology we can: i) refine the broad understanding of this research area, ii) design better future studies and facilitate comparisons among studies, and iii) define more efficiently the "borders" between cellular signaling and stress.

Immunological Techniques to Assess Protein Thiol Redox State: Opportunities, Challenges and Solutions

To understand oxidative stress, antioxidant defense, and redox signaling in health and disease it is essential to assess protein thiol redox state. Protein thiol redox state is seldom assessed immunologically because of the inability to distinguish reduced and reversibly oxidized thiols by Western blotting. An underappreciated opportunity exists to use Click PEGylation to realize the transformative power of simple, time and cost-efficient immunological techniques. Click PEGylation harnesses selective, bio-orthogonal Click chemistry to separate reduced and reversibly oxidized thiols by selectively ligating a low molecular weight polyethylene glycol moiety to the redox state of interest. The resultant ability to disambiguate reduced and reversibly oxidized species by Western blotting enables Click PEGylation to assess protein thiol redox state. In the present review, to enable investigators to effectively harness immunological techniques to assess protein thiol redox state we critique the chemistry, promise and challenges of Click PEGylation.

Reversible Thiol Oxidation Inhibits the Mitochondrial ATP Synthase in Xenopus Laevis Oocytes

Oocytes are postulated to repress the proton pumps (e.g., complex IV) and ATP synthase to safeguard mitochondrial DNA homoplasmy by curtailing superoxide production. Whether the ATP synthase is inhibited is, however, unknown. Here we show that: oligomycin sensitive ATP synthase activity is significantly greater (~170 vs. 20 nmol/min^-1/mg^-1) in testes compared to oocytes in Xenopus laevis (X. laevis). Since ATP synthase activity is redox regulated, we explored a regulatory role for reversible thiol oxidation. If a protein thiol inhibits the ATP synthase, then constituent subunits must be reversibly oxidised. Catalyst-free trans-cyclooctene 6-methyltetrazine (TCO-Tz) immunocapture coupled to redox affinity blotting reveals several subunits in F₁ (e.g., ATP-α-F₁) and F_o (e.g., subunit c) are reversibly oxidised. Catalyst-free TCO-Tz Click PEGylation reveals significant (~60%) reversible ATP-α-F₁ oxidation at two evolutionary conserved cysteine residues (C²⁴⁴ and C²⁹⁴) in oocytes. TCO-Tz Click PEGylation reveals ~20% of the total thiols in the ATP synthase are substantially oxidised. Chemically reversing thiol oxidation significantly increased oligomycin sensitive ATP synthase activity from ~12 to 100 nmol/min^-1/mg^-1 in oocytes. We conclude that reversible thiol oxidation inhibits the mitochondrial ATP synthase in X. laevis oocytes.

Compartmentalized muscle redox signals controlling exercise metabolism - Current state, future challenges

Exercise imposes cellular stress on contracting skeletal muscle fibers, forcing them to complete molecular adaptations to maintain homeostasis. There is mounting evidence that redox signaling by reactive oxygen species (ROS) is vital for skeletal muscle exercise adaptations across many different exercise modalities. The study of redox signaling is moving towards a growing appreciation that these ROS do not signal in a global unspecific way, but rather elicit their effects in distinct subcellular compartments. This short review will first outline the sources of ROS in exercising skeletal muscle and then discuss some examples of exercise adaptations, which are evidenced to be regulated by compartmentalized redox signaling. We speculate that knowledge of these redox pathways might one day allow targeted manipulation to increase redox-signaling in specific compartments to augment the exercise-hormetic response in health and disease.

Catalyst-free Click PEGylation reveals substantial mitochondrial ATP synthase sub-unit alpha oxidation before and after fertilisation

Using non-reducing Western blotting to assess protein thiol redox state is challenging because most reduced and oxidised forms migrate at the same molecular weight and are, therefore, indistinguishable. While copper catalysed Click chemistry can be used to ligate a polyethylene glycol (PEG) moiety termed Click PEGylation to mass shift the reduced or oxidised form as desired, the potential for copper catalysed auto-oxidation is problematic. Here we define a catalyst-free trans-cyclooctene-methyltetrazine (TCO-Tz) inverse electron demand Diels Alder chemistry approach that affords rapid (k ~2000 M⁻¹ s⁻¹), selective and bio-orthogonal Click PEGylation. We used TCO-Tz Click PEGylation to investigate how fertilisation impacts reversible mitochondrial ATP synthase F₁-F_o sub-unit alpha (ATP-α-F₁) oxidation—an established molecular correlate of impaired enzyme activity—in Xenopus laevis. TCO-Tz Click PEGylation studies reveal substantial (~65%) reversible ATP-α-F₁ oxidation at evolutionary conserved cysteine residues (i.e., C²⁴⁴ and C²⁹⁴) before and after fertilisation. A single thiol is, however, preferentially oxidised likely due to greater solvent exposure during the catalytic cycle. Selective reduction experiments show that: S-glutathionylation accounts for ~50–60% of the reversible oxidation observed, making it the dominant oxidative modification type. Intermolecular disulphide bonds may also contribute due to their relative stability. Substantial reversible ATP-α-F₁ oxidation before and after fertilisation is biologically meaningful because it implies low mitochondrial F₁-F_o ATP synthase activity. Catalyst-free TCO-Tz Click PEGylation is a valuable new tool to interrogate protein thiol redox state in health and disease.

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Catalyst-free TCO-Tz Click PEGylation can assess protein thiol redox state.

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ATP-α-F₁ is substantially oxidised before and after fertilisation.

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S-glutathionylation is the dominant oxidative modification type.

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A single thiol is preferentially oxidised due to greater solvent exposure.

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Catalyst-free TCO-Tz Click PEGylation is a valuable new tool.